Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) II. Foundation of the Church
7. The King's Viceroy: Petrine Primacy (30-67)
II
Foundation of the Church
7. THE KING'S VICEROY: PETRINE PRIMACY
A. Petrine Primacy at Jerusalem (30-50)
(1)CHRISTIAN BEGINNINGS (30-36)
Church of the Cenacle. According to the chronology adopted, the date of Christ's
Ascension would be May 18, 30. On this day the Church numbered some 620 members: about
500 in Galilee and 120 in Jerusalem. With Christ's visible departure, ecclesiastical leadership fell
to His viceroy and legates. "All these with one mind continued steadfastly in prayer with the
women and Mary, the Mother of Jesus" (Acts 1:14). Mary would be mother of Christ's mystic
body as well as of His physical. The first disciplinary act of the apostolic college under Peter's
presidency was to provide for its perpetuation: the disciple Matthias was promoted to the
apostolic office vacated by the treason and death of Judas of Kerioth (Acts 1:15).
Pentecostal initiative. Pentecost, May 28, galvanized the Church and her hierarchy into
action. Though she already had her invisible bead, Christ, and a visible bead in Peter, she
remained lifeless until the Holy Spirit, soul of the mystic body, descended on the Cenacle. At
once Peter preached the first sermon of the Church to a group of Pentecostal pilgrims from the
Diaspora. He recalled the Messianic prophecies fulfilled in Christ, and his words were accorded a
divine unction, for on that very day the Christian membership was increased by 3,000. For
continued stress on the Lord's resurrection, several apostles were arrested. But the Sanhedrin
eventually dismissed them, first with an admonition, and then with corporeal punishment. The
Jewish leaders feared to provoke both Rome and the people by another tumult, and the
conscientious Gamaliel was advising caution. But miracles brought human calculations to
naught, and the Church increased rapidly.

Clerical recruitment. In consequence, the apostles became so occupied with preaching
and the ministration of sacraments, that they could not easily attend to the details of temporal
administration. Christian converts, for the most part poor and disowned, had pooled their
resources. But disputes arose between Palestinian Jews and those of the Diaspora about
distribution of the common property. Accordingly the apostles conferred a portion of the
sacrament of holy orders on seven men nominated by the community; these became diaconoi:
deacons or servants of the poor, and apostolic assistants in temporal affairs (Acts, chap. 6).
When it became necessary to delegate sacerdotal powers as well, the apostles ordained priests
as their spiritual aides; before long we hear of presbyteroi other than the apostles (Acts 11:30;
15:4).
Missions. St. Stephen, one of the new deacons from the Diaspora, was less considerate
than the apostles of Palestinian traditions and an irate mob, possibly taking advantage of an
interregnum between Pilate and Marcellus, made him the Church's first martyr. Persecution
dispersed some Christians to Samaria where Peter and John are found confirming those baptized
by Deacon Philip, and rejecting simony incarnate (Acts, chaps. 7-8). This missionary expansion
prompted the Sanhedrin's agent, Saul of Tarsus, to extend the dragnet to Damascus. But on the
way this fiery Pharisee met the King in person, and accepted a divine commission to become the
Apostle Paul. After presenting his credentials to Peter, be retired to mystic communion with
Jesus pending his own hour. The apostolic college was complete; the patriarchs of the New
Testament had all been chosen to provide the foundation of the Church upon Christ as
cornerstone (Acts, chap. 9).
(2) EPIPHANY OF CATHOLICITY (36-42)
Gentile conversion. De jure, the Church had been instituted for all men; de facto, up to
this time all its members were Jews. Now the Christian Church, potentially universal, actually
manifested its catholicity, though not without discussion and argument. About 40, St. Peter set
out upon an episcopal visitation. At Caesarea be received the request of the centurion Cornelius
for admission to the Church. Reminded by vision of the Church's universality, St. Peter baptized
Cornelius. Some Jewish Christians made some demur at this, but were silenced by Peter's
detailed explanation. Yet many probably considered this an exceptional case, and there is no
indication, moreover, that Cornelius did not adopt Mosaic practices. Thus a misunderstanding
remained latent in the Palestinian community: Gentiles might be converted to the Church, but this
ought likewise involve embracing Judaism.
Herodian persecution. The persecution begun with St. Stephen's martyrdom seems to
have subsided, perhaps because the Jews were distracted by Emperor Gaius's threat to erect his
statue in the Temple. But Herod III Agrippa (41-44), client prince of Judea by Claudius's favor,
sought to ingratiate himself with his new subjects by launching another persecution against
Christians. In this James bar Zebedee became the first apostle to suffer martyrdom, and St.
Peter himself was rescued only by angelic intervention. This persecution died out with Herod and
the restoration of Roman procurators (Acts, chap. 12). Once again adversity had but spread the
Christians more widely, this time among the Gentiles. Dispersal of the apostles to their worldwide
missions took place about this time, if we credit Clement of Alexandria's statement that
Christ had instructed them: "After twelve years you shall go forth into the world lest anyone say:
'We have not heard'" (Stromata,VI, 5).
Antiochian Catholicity. In any event many Christians had gone to Antioch to escape
persecution so that the Church's horizon had widened. This Gentile environment called Paul from
retirement and he and Barnabas made many converts from paganism. The entry of the latter into
the Church necessitated a distinctive name for members of the new religion, hitherto confounded
with Judaism in Gentile minds. Thus it came about that "in Antioch . . . the disciples were first
called Christians" (Acts 11:26). This pagan nickname was gladly accepted by Christ's viceroy (1
Peter 4:16) and so became general. Hitherto Jerusalem had been St. Peter's headquarters.
According to the Liber Pontificalis, he then held the see of Antioch for seven years. If St. Peter
went to Rome in 42, his Antiochian episcopate would seem to date from 35. This accords with
the chronology of the Acts, nor is the seven years' stay at all certain. It is sufficient to state that at
some time prior to or contemporaneous with his Roman episcopate, St. Peter also supervised the
see of Antioch. It would seem likely that with Christian expansion from the Palestinian cradle, St.
Peter may have transferred his headquarters first from Jerusalem to Antioch, a Hellenistic
metropolis, and finally to Rome itself. He certainly supervised the organization of the church at
Antioch as apostle and primate, but need not be termed its bishop -- Eusebius's exact words are:
"On the death of Evodius, who was the first bishop of Antioch, Ignatius was appointed the
second" (History, 111, 22). St. Peter could have founded the Antiochian hierarchy and then gone
on to Rome, leaving Evodius as his vicar.
(3) JUDAIZING CRISIS (42-50)
Origin of dispute. During his first missionary journey, St. Paul had been hampered by the
Mosaic persuasions of Jewish Christians; when be returned to Antioch, he found Judaizers active
there. Silenced for a time by Cornelius's admission, they were now alarmed at multiplication of
Gentile conversions. These converted Pharisees not only continued to observe the entire Mosaic
ceremonial themselves, but insisted that: "Unless you be circumcised after the manner of Moses,
you cannot be saved" (Acts 15:1). The dogmatic issue was serious. Did Christ's Redemption
suffice for salvation, or must all become Jews before embracing Christianity?
Apostolic council. Fully aware of the importance of the question, St. Paul beaded a
delegation from Antioch to Jerusalem. Here about 50 A.D. he found St. James bar Alpheus, now
bishop of the Holy City, and St. Peter, who had possibly left Rome upon Claudius's expulsion of
Jews in 49. These apostles at least, and probably St. John, constituted the Council of Jerusalem,
pattern of all succeeding ecclesiastical assemblies. Both parties to the dispute presented their
views and discussion became heated. Were the Church but a democratic congregation, the
difference could have dissolved it into warring factions. But "when there had been much
disputing," St. Peter delivered an ex cathedra decision: "We believe that we are saved through
the grace of the Lord Jesus." And then, the Acts add significantly, "the whole meeting quieted
down." All that remained was to put the decision into execution. St. James made an address, not
to confirm Peter's decision, but to propose prudent formulas for implementing it without undue
shock to Jewish conservatism. Accordingly four disciplinary canons were drawn up, enjoining
that all Christians abstain from: (1) "things sacrificed to idols"; (2) "blood"; (3) "what is strangled";
and (4) "immorality." The first three were temporary prohibitions, regulations of the Mosaic Law
applicable even to strangers dwelling among the Jews; hence the propriety of retaining them as
long as Jew and Gentile intermingled in the new Christian communities. The fourth canon, Prat
opines, refers to marriage with blood relatives. If so, it marks a beginning of ecclesiastical
matrimonial impediments. The Council communicated both dogmatic decision and disciplinary
prescriptions authoritatively: "For the Holy Spirit and we have decided." For all of docile
disposition, the Judaizing crisis was over; obstinate Judaizers gathered into a sect denounced by
St. John (Rev; chaps. 2, 3) and St. Ignatius of Antioch (Magnesians, 8).
Antiochian echo. Apparently soon after the Apostolic Council, Sts. Peter and Paul met at
Antioch. St. Peter followed the conciliar decrees in practice by dining with Gentile converts, but
when some Palestinian extremists appeared he withdrew from contact with the Gentile to avoid
scandalizing the Palestinians. St. Paul, quick to appreciate Gentile mentality, and realizing the
force of St. Peter's example, " withstood him to his face" (Gal. 2:11). St. Paul's action is no
objection to papal primacy, but rather confirms it. St. Peter was guilty merely of trying too hard to
please everybody. Even so, St. Paul cites this incident to the Galatians as proof of his
courageous defense of their interests; evidently this Peter is formidable even for St. Paul.
B. Petrine Primacy at Rome (42-67)
(1) ROMAN EPISCOPATE
Petrine assertion. That St. Peter was the first bishop of Rome is historically certain. He
himself sent greetings from "the church which is at Babylon" (1 Peter 5:13). Since the Babylonian
captivity, this term in Jewish circles indicated a persecutor of their nation. Besides St. John the
Apostle noted below, other writers confirm the identification with Rome in this instance. Clement
of Alexandria says explicitly: "Peter mentions Mark in his first epistle which they say he also wrote
in Rome, as be indicates where be calls the city figuratively Babylon" (Eusebius, History, II, 15).
Apostolic recognition. Writing to the Romans about 57 or 58, St. Paul assured them of
his desire to visit them, though he has not been in a hurry to do so as "I have not preached this
Gospel where Christ has already been named, lest I might build on another man's foundation"
(Rom. 15:20). This "other man," all tradition affirms, must have been Peter. St. John, moreover,
writing after the martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul at Rome, after an allusion to Rome a "Babylon
the great . . . on seven mountains," exclaims: "Make merry over her, O heaven, and you the
saints and apostles and the prophets, for God has judged your cause upon her" (Apoc. 17:5, 9;
18:20).
Patristic confirmation. St. Clement of Rome, writing about 96 regarding the Neronian
persecution, asserted that "Peter by reason of unrighteous envy endured not one or two, but
many trials, and so, having borne testimony, passed to his appointed place of glory." This took
place "among us"; i.e., at Rome (2 Corinthians 5). St. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, the only see
that might plausibly challenge Roman primacy, yet assures the Romans that: "I do not command
you as Peter and Paul did," and enthusiastically salutes that church "which presides in the region
of the Romans" (Romans, 1, 4). St. Denis of Corinth about 170 attested that Peter and Paul
"taught together in Italy and suffered martyrdom at the same time" (Eusebius, History, II, 25). St.
Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, St. John's "grand-disciple," and visitor to Rome, wrote of "the very
great, very ancient, and universally known church founded and organized at Rome by the two
glorious apostles, Peter and Paul" (Against Heresies, III, 3). Incidentally, Sts. Peter and Paul
should not be regarded as cofounders or coadjutor bishops of Rome (D. 1091). Tertullian of
Carthage clearly implies that Rome is an apostolic church founded by St. Peter, that his episcopal
chair is still preserved there, and that after baptizing converts in the Tiber, he was crucified at
Rome (Prescriptions, 32, 36; Baptism, 4). All these testimonies induced the first Church historian
to conclude: "Peter the Apostle, having first founded the Church at Antioch, goes to the city of
Rome, and there preaches the Gospel and there abides as head of the Church" (Eusebius,
Chronicle: Olympiad 204).
(2) ROMAN ACTIVITY
The chronology of St. Peter's Roman episcopate is less certainly known. In his first
edition of his Chronicle, Eusebius suggested an implausible 39 to 64 A.D.; in his History (II, 14; III,
13) he assigns St. Peter a stay from 42 to 67. The Liber Pontificalis would have Peter .enter
Rome under Nero Caesar and occupy the episcopal see for 25 years, 1 month, and 8 days."
Such exactitude is suspicious, but the quarter-century pontificate is not without basis in tradition,
if it be not interpreted as a continuous uninterrupted sojourn. The date of St. Peter's martyrdom
must fall within Nero's persecution (64-68) and remains in dispute, but the traditional date, June
29, 67, seems as reliable as any.
Hypothetical reconstruction. Tradition is elusive and vague regarding St. Peter's Roman
activity, but the following account tries to blend the more reliable legends. Whatever instructions
Christ may have given St. Peter about the choice of Rome as his see, legend assigns the need of
confuting Simon Magus as the immediate occasion of the Apostle's coming to Rome. On his
arrival, St. Peter would plausibly at first have settled in the Jewish quarter in Trastevere. Since he
was not a learned scribe like St. Paul, be probably was not invited to speak in the synagogues,
and had to make converts by private contacts. Later legend locates him in the house of St. Paul's
friends, Aquila and Priscilla, on the Aventine, and at the Ostrian Villa of the Acilii, where he is
known to have baptized. There as well as in a subsequent legendary abode in the house of
Senator Pudens episcopal chairs were set up. These were well known to antiquity. One survived
into the sixth century; the remains of the other are today in St. Peter's Basilica. At Rome, St.
Peter sanctioned St. Mark's rendition of his oral catechesis as the Second Gospel, and himself
composed two canonical epistles. The Liber Pontificalis and the Apostolic Constitutions (VII, 46)
may preserve some facts in stating that St. Peter consecrated Linus, Cletus, and Clement, who
served as his vicars during his absences, and in turn succeeded him in the papacy. One of St.
Peter's absences certainly took him to the Council of Jerusalem; the same or another journey saw
him evangelizing Pontus and other Asiatic provinces saluted in his First Epistle. At Rome also be
made converts of such distinction that their "faith is proclaimed all over the world" (Rom. 1:8).
Doubtless most of the faithful saluted by St. Paul (ibid., chap. 16) were St. Peter's converts.
Tradition or archaeology would add the names of Priscilla, Acilius Glabrio, Pomponia Graecina,
wife of General Plautius, and Senator Cornelius Pudens.
(3) ROMAN MARTYRDOM
Neronian persecution. On July 19, 64, a fire of unknown origin broke out among shops
near the Circus Maximus. It raged for five days before halted by demolition squads directed by
Emperor Nero. Though the emperor befriended the homeless, be may have expressed some
heartless exultation over the opportunity of realizing his scheme of rebuilding Rome.
Unsubstantiated rumor spread among the desperate masses that Nero himself had instigated the
fire. To divert suspicion the emperor held an investigation, during which blame was laid on the
Christians. The latter were now accused of "hatred for the human race"; in modern terms, they
were branded as anarchists sworn to arson and massacre. To placate the mob and satisfy their
love of the spectacular, the executions were public. During August the accused were crucified,
thrown to the beasts, or used as human torches to light Nero's gardens. Eventually, however,
Nero overplayed his band. The number of victims exceeded the likelihood of a secret arson plot,
while their intense tortures, Tacitus says (Annales, XV, 39-40), excited compassion even among
bloodthirsty Romans. When this sentiment became common, the persecution boomeranged and
hastened Nero's fall. The persecution seems to have extended beyond the city, but to what
extent it is difficult to estimate.
Martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul. Christian loyalty would have done everything to
protect St. Peter, and the legendary Quo Vadis incident of Peter's encounter with Christ while in
flight from Rome may have a basis in this (St. Ambrose, Against Auxentius, 13). St. Paul, who
had left Rome after release from his first captivity, was arrested in the East and sent to Rome for
trial. This time he anticipated an unfavorable sentence (2 Tim. 4:6). St. Peter was eventually
apprehended as well and shared similar anticipations (2 Peter 1:14). Eusebius links the apostles
in death, though St. Peter by crucifixion on Vatican Hill, and St. Paul by beheading on the Ostian
Way (History, II, 25).
St. Peter's tomb on the Vatican was already well known to Father Caius in the second century: "I
can show you the trophies (ornamented tombs) of the apostles. For if you will go to the Vatican
or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who laid the foundation of this church"
(Eusebius, History, II, 25). Thereafter a wealth of historical and archaeological evidence, recently
checked by Pope Pius XII, leaves no doubt that St. Peter's body was buried on Vatican Hill, within
the area of the present basilica; whether his actual remains can be identified is another question.
The apocryphal Acts of Peter probably contain a true tradition in affirming that the Apostle was
crucified and buried " near the obelisk between the goal posts" of the Neronian Circus. The same
obelisk that cast its shadow over the dying apostle today overlooks millions who come to
venerate the tomb of Christ's first viceroy.
Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) II. Foundation of the Church
8. The King's Legates: Apostolic Missions (42-67)
II
Foundation of the Church
8. THE KING'S LEGATES: APOSTOLIC MISSIONS
A. The Apostolic College
(1)PERSONAL APOSTOLIC PREROGATIVES
Immediate testimony to Christ was the primary personal prerogative of the apostle: he
was sent a latere Christi, His personally chosen representative. Christ selected the original
twelve; Judas's replacement, St. Matthias, though nominated by the apostles, was left to the
providential cast of lots. St. Paul was called by Christ in an extraordinary manner, and it is
doubtful if be actually exercised his apostolic office before the martyrdom of St. James bar
Zebedee. But even if for a time there were thirteen apostles, the numerical parallel with the Old
Testament patriarchs holds, for Jacob adopted Joseph's sons: "Ephraim and Manasses shall be
mine even as Reuben and Simeon" (Gen. 48:5). These legates of the New Testament were sent
to testify to Christ's divinity to those persons who had not themselves seen the Master. Since the
chief proof of this claim was Christ's resurrection, apt fulfillment of this mission called for personal
vocation by Christ and the direct evidence from sight of the risen Savior.
Personal infallibility was a corollary of the legatine commission. The apostles were to
promulgate Christian revelation: "teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you" (Matt.
28:20). Such an essential ministry required freedom from error; hence Christ promised: "The
Spirit of truth . . . will teach you all the truth" (John 16:13). This is why St. Paul could say: "If
anyone preach a gospel to you other than that which you have received, let him be anathema"
(Gal. 1:9); and St. John could insist: "If anyone comes to you and does not bring this doctrine, do
not receive him into the house" (II John 10). But this individual apostolic infallibility, unlike St.
Peter's official inerrancy, did not descend to the apostles' individual successors, for St. Paul
warns the prelates of Ephesus: "From among your own selves men will rise speaking perverse
things" (Acts 20:30). Christ's legates, therefore, were preserved from error in promulgating
revelation; with the death of the last apostle, official Christian revelation was closed. The
apostles' successors, the bishops, would be corporately infallible, but not as individuals.
Confirmation in grace is another personal privilege generally attributed to the apostles by
theologians.
Extensive missionary jurisdiction was an apostolic prerogative. St. Paul claims anxiety
for "the care of all the churches" (2 Cor. 11:28); whether this special apostolic jurisdiction was
truly universal or extended merely to all churches founded by each apostle is controverted. It
would seem more probable to conclude with Billot (De Ecclesia, III, 26) that the apostles, while
enjoying an extraordinarily extensive jurisdiction, did not as individuals share St. Peter's exclusive
prerogative of universal rule. From Christ through Peter they derived broad missionary powers to
rule many but not all Christian communities. A natural division of labor would seem to have called
for each apostle to rule under Peter those churches founded by himself.
(2) MISSIONARY EPISCOPATE
The Apostles were the first bishops. As a rule, they did not reside permanently in one
place, but continually traveled to found new churches and confirm others in the Faith. During the
apostolic period, then, the residential episcopate does not seem to have been the general rule.
St. Peter, indeed, was bishop of Rome, but besides his universal primacy, continued to exercise
direct missionary rule over Antioch, Pontus, etc. St. James bar Alpheus also appears as
residential bishop of Jerusalem as early as the Apostolic Council, though his canonical epistle
indicates a broad solicitude for all Christian converts from Judaism among "the twelve tribes that
are in the Dispersion" (James 1:1). St. Paul's is the classic example of the missionary
episcopate, over the Gentiles of the Hellenistic East. Probably the other apostles exercised
similar missions outside the Roman Empire. During their lifetime these apostles remained the
sole ordinaries of the sees founded by them; that is, though they may have had auxiliaries
possessing episcopal orders, such as Sts. Titus and Timothy, they themselves retained
jurisdiction over all their foundations. Whether or no they collectively composed the Apostles'
Creed-and at least there is good reason to attribute its nucleus to Sts. Peter and Paul-the
apostles personally took care that there should be everywhere "one Lord, one faith, one baptism"
(Eph. 4:5).
The presbyteroi-episkopoi were the apostles' assistants in their missionary labors, but the
exact modern equivalent of this class of ministers is in doubt. The following theory for the most
part follows Prat. There can be no doubt that during the first century the terms, presbyteros, and
episkopos, were interchangeable: St. Paul applies both to the same men (Acts 20:18, 28). The
question remains whether these terms meant the same as they do today. Probably the term
presbyteros or "elder" was originally applied to Christian priests in Jewish communities to
distinguish them from the Jewish hiereus. On the other hand, in Gentile communities, the same
Christian priests were designated episkopoi or "overseers" from a term familiar to pagan
administration. As the exclusiveness of the Jewish and Gentile elements in the Church broke
down, the names became interchangeable. Hence unless otherwise stated the presbyteroiepiskopoi
of the Acts and Epistles are simple priests; only Titus and Timothy and other chosen
disciples had the plenitude of the priesthood, or episcopal consecration. Colleges of such priests
were residential supervisors of missionary churches founded and governed by the apostles. Only
subsequently did it become customary to restrict the term episkopos to those priests who had
received the fullness of episcopal consecration. By analogy, several American states at first
entitled their chief executives "presidents," e.g., Benjamin Franklin was "president of
Pennsylvania." Later this term was reserved to the chief executive of the federal government and
state executives were known as governors. We can only conjecture why episkopos was used to
designate the higher office in the Christian hierarchy. Its meaning of overseer or superintendent
seems better to connote a chief ruler than presbyteros or elder or senator. Perhaps also the term
gained prestige by St. Peter's application of it to Christ: the "shepherd and [episkopon]
of your souls" (1 Peter 2:25).
B. The Individual Apostles
(1) APOSTOLIC DELEGATION TO THE JEWS
St. James bar Alpheus seems to have been designated as bishop of Jerusalem by St.
Peter before the latter's departure for Antioch and Rome: St. Peter bade the Christians report his
escape "to James and to the brethren" (Acts 12:17). St. James was prominent at the Apostolic
Council, and is saluted by St. Paul on his return to the Holy City (Acts, chap. 15; 21:18).
Eusebius places St. James at the head of the list of bishops of Jerusalem (History, II, 23).
Besides his care for Jerusalem, St. James seems to have been assigned supervision over all
converts from Judaism: he appears as their "cardinal protector" in his canonical epistle. While St.
Peter exercised general supervision over both Jews and Gentiles, their special interests in the
Roman Empire would seem to have been committed respectively to Sts. James and Paul. In
keeping with his charge, St. James strove to conciliate the Jews by strict personal observance of
the Mosaic precepts. A man of severe asceticism, he was respected by Jews as well as
Christians. But though the Pharisees tolerated him, the Sadducees, led by the high priest Annas
the Younger, stirred up a mob to stone St. James after his courageous confession of Christ
(Josephus, Antiquities, xx, 4). His martyrdom seems to have occurred about 62, during a
procuratorial interregnum between Festus's death and Albinus's arrival.
St. John bar Zebedee remained in the background at Jerusalem during these same
years, probably because his protective role in regard to the Blessed Virgin prompted a
contemplative life. The apocryphal Dormitio Virginis implies that Mary died at Jerusalem about
48. Though this testimony is far from certain, it is more plausible than the rival legend that the
Blessed Virgin accompanied St. John to Ephesus and died there after 67. Juvenal, bishop of
Jerusalem in the fifth century, informed Empress St. Pulcheria that Mary had died at Jerusalem in
the presence of all the apostles save Thomas. She had been buried in Gethsemane, but when
her tomb was opened three days later for Thomas's benefit, it was found empty. From this and
certain miraculous signs the apostles concluded to Mary's assumption. While the latter dogma is
now beyond question, the foregoing details are but legendary: neither certain tradition nor proven
myth.
After St. Paul's death, Eusebius informs us (History, III, 18, 23-24) that St. John went to
Ephesus where he may have succeeded the Apostle of the Gentiles in a general supervision of
the churches of Asia Minor; the Apocalypse and Johannine epistles seem to confirm this. As will
be seen, he opposed Judaizers and other heretics. He is said to have rejected Cerinthus the
Gnostic at the baths (St. Irenaeus, A. H., III, 3). Other anecdotes report his pursuit and
conversion of a Christian relapsed into brigandage (Clement, Quis Dives, 42); his continual
exhortation to fraternal charity (St. Jerome, Galatians, vi, 10), his pet pheasant (Cassian,
Conferences, xxiv). About 95, during Domitian's persecution, he escaped miraculously from
burning oil at Rome (Tertullian, Prescriptions, 36). Exiled to Patmos, he wrote the Apocalypse
(St. Irenaeus, A. H., V, 30). Afterwards he returned to Ephesus, where he wrote his Gospel at the
request of disciples, among whom were St. Polycarp, St. Ignatius, and possibly St. Papias. St.
John, last survivor of the apostles, died at Ephesus, probably about 100 A.D. (Eusebius, History,
V, 24).
(2) APOSTOLIC DELEGATION TO THE GENTILES
St. Paul of Tarsus, whose conversion has already been recounted, also spent his early
apostolate in contemplative waiting on Providence. About 42, however, he was summoned to his
life work by St. Barnabas, overburdened with Gentile converts at Antioch. Antioch, however, was
to be but St. Paul's base of operations; he was soon on a mission to Asia Minor (Acts, chap. 13).
First Mission (45-49). With Sts. Barnabas and Mark and other members of the Antiochian
Church, St. Paul proceeded to Cyprus where they converted the proconsul Sergius Paulus.
Thence they entered the mainland to preach at Antioch in Pisidia. Here the stubborn resistance
of the Jews prompted St. Paul to turn to the Gentiles, in some instances dispensing his converts
from the Mosaic law. His subsequent missionary journey took him to Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe.
In each city, despite opposition, be set up Christian communities and ordained priests to minister
to them. The missionaries retraced their steps, including Perge on the return.
Second Mission (50-52). After the Apostolic Council had absolved Gentile converts from
Mosaic prescriptions, St. Paul set out with the conciliar decrees to revisit Derbe, Lystra, Iconium,
and Antioch of Pisidia. Traveling by land and led on by divine inspiration, he rapidly passed
through Phrygia, Galatia, and Mysia, to arrive at Troas. Here the vision of the "man from
Macedonia" invited him to Europe. In spite of a scourging at Philippi, he succeeded in
establishing a flourishing church. Then his route took him through Salonika, Beroea, and Athens,
where he addressed the Areopagite Academy. Stoics and Epicureans interrupted his discourse
on the resurrection, though Denis the Areopagite and several others were won over (Acts, chap.
17). In all these places converts were won, and at the port of Corinth he founded a large and
polyglot community which was to give him many trials. Here be had to write letters to the
Thessalonians to prevent working-class converts from laying down their tools in expectation of an
imminent parousia: second coming of Christ. Then after a brief visit to Ephesus, St. Paul
returned to Jerusalem to fulfill the Nazarite vow.
Third Mission (53-58). According to promise, St. Paul returned to Ephesus and en route
revisited many Asiatic churches. From Ephesus he directed other communities by letter, and
thence may have sent deputies to regulate serious internal disputes at Corinth. At Ephesus the
tumult of the silversmiths made it prudent for him to return to supervise the Christian communities
in Macedonia and Greece. Having collected alms for Jerusalem, he set out on his return. Still
avoiding Ephesus, be summoned its priests to Miletus for a farewell exhortation.
Last days. At Jerusalem, St. Paul was arrested for alleged violation of Mosaic
prescriptions. During the following years he defended himself from Jewish plots to kill him by
pleading his Roman citizenship and remaining in imperial custody. His case dragged on for two
years under the venal procurator Felix, but the latter's successor Festus promptly granted his
appeal to the imperial supreme court. After suffering shipwreck at Malta, Paul arrived at Rome
about 61. Though the Acts cease their account at this point, we have sound tradition in favor of
his liberation by 63. Thereafter the Muratorian Canon reports a mission to Spain, while his later
Epistles seem to presume a final journey to Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece. Ultimately, as already
mentioned, be came to Rome and perished with St. Peter in the Neronian persecution. His tomb
is outside the city on the Ostian Way; his epitaph might be: "Be imitators of me as I am of Christ."
(3) THE OTHER APOSTLES
St. Matthew, according to Rufinus (History, III, 1), preached the Gospel in Ethiopia, and a
copy of his Gospel was found in Arabia. Later testimonies, which have not the same reliability,
assign him a mission in India.
St. Thomas, according to Eusebius and Rufinus, preached the word of Christ to the
Parthians, which designation may include Medes and Persians.
St. Nathanael bar Tholmai, according to the same authorities, preached in Upper India;
later and unsubstantiated legends assign him other mission fields.
St. Andrew, according to Eusebius, preached to the Scythians, presumably in Thrace and
the Ukraine. Constantinople subsequently invented a claim to him as its first bishop. Though St.
Andrew is revered as a martyr, his Acts are not authentic.
St. Philip and his virgin daughter labored and died at Hierapolis in Phrygia, according to
Eusebius (History, III, 32), who, however, may have confused him with Deacon Philip.
St. Jude bar Alpheus preached at Edessa. Though he could have converted Prince
Agbar of Edessa, the latter's letter to Christ is deemed apocryphal (Eusebius, History, III, 19; cf. 1,
13).
St. James bar Zebedee died at Jerusalem as already noted (Acts 12). Late legends
giving him a mission in Spain cannot be substantiated,
though Compostella claims his body.
St. Simon Zelotes is not mentioned in early tradition; later legends, deemed probable by
the Bollandists, assign him Persia and Babylonia.
St. Matthias is the subject of many contradictory legends emanating from the apocrypha.
The common denominator of these tales is that he labored somewhere in the East and was
crucified. The Evangelists, Sts. Mark and Luke, are assigned sees at Alexandria and Greece
respectively by Eusebius (History, II, 16; III, 4).
Conclusion: "There were many others . . . who held the first rank in the apostolic
succession. These, as holy disciples of such men, also built up the churches whose foundations
had previously been laid in every place by the apostles. They augmented the means of
promulgating the Gospel more and more, and spread the seeds of salvation and of the heavenly
Kingdom throughout the world" (Eusebius, History, III, 37).
Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) II. Foundation of the Church
9. Legatine Overseer: Episcopal Successions (67-107)
II
Foundation of the Church
9. LEGATINE OVERSEERS: EPISCOPAL SUCCESSION
A. The Episcopal College
(1)APOSTOLIC VICARIATE
Residential sees. In thoroughly evangelized Christian communities, the transition from
the missionary to the residential episcopate seems to have been completed by the first decade of
the second century. In other words, instead of the primitive organization of colleges of
presbyteroi-episkopoi ruling local churches under the higher jurisdiction of an apostle or apostolic
vicar, the familiar modern system of the monarchical episcopate appears. Single "overseers" or
bishops in the modern sense presided over dioceses with fixed territorial limits, as contrasted with
the more indefinite missionary jurisdiction still enjoyed today by vicars and prefects apostolic.
This residential episcopate, already anticipated in St. James's special status at Jerusalem, is
common in Asia Minor by the second century. It is probable that the "angels" of the churches of
Asia Minor saluted by St. John are their bishops (Apoc., chaps. 1-3). In any event it is clear from
the letters of St. Ignatius, bishop of Antioch at the opening of the second century, that the
monarchical episcopate had been established at Smyrna, Magnesia, Philippi, Ephesus, Trallis,
and Philadelphia. In these communities, priests and deacons must be subject to the bishop; in
brief, "apart from the bishop, let no one perform any of the functions pertaining to the church"
(Smyrneans, 8). The bishop so personifies ecclesiastical unity, that St. Ignatius says, in the first
recorded use of the term: "Where the bishop is, there is the Catholic Church" (ibid.). In the case
of four sees, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, Eusebius has furnished unbroken lists of
bishops back to the apostles. There can be no doubt, then, that the episcopal college has
succeeded to all the essential powers of the apostolic college; collectively the bishops are truly
the " successors of the apostles."
B. The Individual Overseers
(1) THE ROMAN SEE
Pontifical catalogue. Patristic testimony is not unanimous about the order of succession
to St. Peter as Bishop of Rome. The old list of the popes, hitherto based on the Liber Pontificalis,
gave the papal succession as: Linus, Cletus, Clement, Anacletus (Loomis, Book of Popes).
Tertullian implied that Clement was the second pope (Prescriptions, 32); and St. Optatus listed:
Linus, Cletus, Anacletus, Clement, while the Poem Against Marcion gave: Linus, Cletus,
Anacletus, Clement. But in 1947 the quasi-official list of the Annuario Pontificio was changed in
accord with the testimony of St. Irenaeus of Lyons: "The blessed apostles founded and reared
this church and afterwards committed unto Linus the office of the episcopate. This same Lyons is
mentioned by Paul in his Epistles to Timothy. His successor was Anacletus, after whom, in the
third place from the apostles, Clement was elected to the bishopric" (Against Heresies, III, 3).
This is both the earliest and most reliable evidence. Modern historians now practically agree that
Cletus and Anacletus were two names of the same man-like Saul and Paul -and that earlier
annalists made two popes out of one. Eusebius, after weighing the early evidence, accepted St.
Irenaeus's list, to which he supplied dates. Eusebius's chronology, which can be only
approximately accurate, would give: St. Linus (67-79), St. Anacletus (79-91), St. Clement (91-
100), and St. Evaristus (100-108). The details supplied by the Liber Pontificalis about these first
successors of St. Peter are quite legendary. For what they are worth, they inform us that St.
Linus ordered women to veil their heads in church; St. Anacletus built the tombs of the apostles,
St. Clement divided the city into seven districts, and St. Evaristus organized Roman parishes.
Primatial assertion. On the other hand, no uncertainty shrouds Pope St. Clement's
authentic Letter to the Corinthians, aptly termed the .,epiphany of the Roman primacy." About 96,
during the lifetime of St. John the Apostle, St. Clement took it upon himself to rebuke the
Corinthians for insubordination to their local clergy. As one charged with their salvation, and in
God's name he commanded prompt cessation of schism, and sent legates to enforce his decision
(Cor., 1, 57, 59, 63). St. Denis of Corinth assures us that the Corinthians obeyed (Eusebius,
History, II, 25).
Primatial recognition. About a decade later (107?), St. Ignatius, who as bishop of Antioch
might conceivably have laid claim to be St. Peter's successor, wrote his Letter to the Romans.
Far from "commanding them as Peter and Paul," be besought them; be saluted their church as
"presiding over the whole brotherhood of charity"; he acknowledged that once his see was
vacated by his anticipated martyrdom, "only Jesus Christ and your charity shall exercise
episcopal power there" (Rom., 1, 9-10). During the lifetime of men who knew the apostles, then,
Roman primatial authority was unquestioned; there is no chance of a usurpation.
(2) THE WEST
Italy. Besides Rome, the only other Italian Christian congregation certainly known to
have existed during the first century is that of Puteoli (Acts 28:14). Many Italian sees claim
associates of the apostles as their founders. While none of these claims is beyond question,
there seems to be some probability for the foundation of Lucca by St. Paulinus; of Fiesole by St.
Romulus; of Ravenna by St. Apollinaris; of Milan by St. Anathalon; of Aquileia by St. Mark; of
Bologna by St. Zamas, of Bari by St. Maurus, and of Naples by St. Aspren.
Gaul. Eusebius (History, III, 4) asserts that Gaul was evangelized by Crescens, a disciple
mentioned by St. Paul (2 Tim. 4:10); but Theodoret (On Timothy, iv) interprets this as Galatia.
Legend, not necessarily false, has it that Lazarus of Bethany was the first bishop of Marseilles,
where he resided with his sisters, Sts. Martha and Mary Magdalen. Arles claims as her first
bishop St. Paul's disciple Trophimus (2 Tim. 4:20). Nevertheless, it is suspected that many
alleged apostolic foundations of Gallic sees are subsequent inventions to bolster claims to
hierarchical precedence. Abelard's denial of the foundation of Paris by St. Denis the Areopagite,
however imprudent for his own career, seems justified.
Spain. The Muratorian Canon confirms the fulfillment of St. Paul's plan of going to Spain
(Romans, 15:29; Canon, vi, 39). But that St. James bar Zebedee preached in Spain prior to his
martyrdom in Jerusalem about 42 seems unlikely; even the possession of his body at
Compostella is challenged on the ground that the apostolicity of that see is a tenth century
invention. Otherwise the history of Spain's Christianity in the first century remains unknown.
Northern Africa, excluding here the oriental see of Alexandria, also remains in obscurity
during this period. Tertullian says that African Christianity was derived from Rome, and
geographical proximity would have made early evangelization feasible.
Domitian's persecution, though it reached St. John in Asia (Apoc. 1:9), and Christ's
relatives in Palestine (Eusebius, History, III, 19), for the most part affected the West. During the
years 95-96 the persecution claimed the lives of the emperor's cousin Flavius Clemens, of Flavia
Domitilla, M. Acilius Glabrio, and "many other citizens who had adopted Jewish customs" (Dio
Cassius, lxvii, 13). Tertullian described the persecution (Apologeticus, 5; Prescriptions, 36), and
Blessed Melito confirms the usual assumption that Nero and Domitian were the only imperial
persecutors in the first century. Pope St. Clement informed the Corinthians that "men who had
led holy lives were joined by a great multitude of the elect that suffered numerous indignities and
tortures"; e.g., Christian women were forced to enact the roles of Dirce and the Danaids in Greek
mythology. These were sobering events, for the pope reminds them: "We are in the same arena
and face the same conflict" (2Cor., 1).
(3) THE EAST
Greece. The European portion of St. Paul's missionary territory has several authentic
notices during this period. Tertullian reminded would-be heretics: "Recall the various apostolic
churches in which the actual chairs of the apostles are still standing in their places, in which their
own authentic letters are read, repeating the voice and calling up the face of each of them
severally. Achaea is very near to you, where you have Corinth. If you are not far from
Macedonia, you have Philippi. If you can travel into Asia, you have Ephesus" (Prescriptions, 36).
Eusebius, moreover, asserts that St. Denis the Areopagite became the first bishop of Athens. St.
Titus became bishop in Crete, while Bishop Denis of Corinth had two predecessors in near
apostolic times, Publius and Quadratus (History, III, 4; IV, 23).
Asia Minor. St. John the Apostle has already been mentioned as exercising patriarchal
authority at Ephesus in succession to St. Paul. His Apocalypse mentions the seven churches of
Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, -and Laodicea. The uncertain
evidence of the Apostolic Constitutions (VII, 46) would supply the names of Sts. Timothy and
John as bishops of Ephesus; of Gaius of Pergamus, of Zoticus of Sardis, of Demetrius of
Philadelphia, and of Archippus of Laodicea. At the opening of the second century, St. Ignatius's
letters mention the bishops, St. Polycarp of Smyrna, Onesimus of Ephesus, Dames of Magnesia,
and Polybius of Trallis. It is not surprising that Pliny the Younger would soon (111) be alarmed by
Christian numbers in Asia Minor (Eusebius, History, III, 18, 23, 24).
Palestine. St. James bar Alpheus, apostolic bishop of Jerusalem (42-62), was
succeeded by St. Simeon, a cousin of Christ, who ruled until 107. During the siege of Jerusalem
be led the Christians to a refuge in Pella. After the destruction of the Temple the Christian
community lost its Jewish character to a considerable degree. Domitian meditated the death of
St. Simeon and other relatives of Christ, but desisted at the report of their poverty. St. Simeon
was opposed by the Ebionites or "poor men," impenitent Judaizers, who eventually formed a
distinct sect which held to the apocryphal Gospel of the Hebrews. They vanished by the fourth
century. With the martyrdom of St. Simeon under Trajan, the apostolic age closed at Jerusalem
(Eusebius, History, III).
Syria. The first bishop so styled by Eusebius was Evodius, apparently named to Antioch
by St. Peter himself. About 98 he was succeeded by Ignatius Theophorus, whom legend makes
the child presented to the apostles by Christ as an object lesson of humility. Arrested about 107,
be was condemned to be thrown to the beasts at Rome. On the way to martyrdom, he wrote
seven letters which, lyric in their vibrant and lofty spirituality, bring the apostolic age at Antioch to
a brilliant close (Eusebius, History, III, 22, 36).
Egypt. Eusebius terms Alexandria's founder and the first bishop St. Mark, sent there by
St. Peter. St. Mark had previously acted as St. Peter's secretary, and in this capacity wrote his
Gospel which, according to St. Papias, faithfully reproduced St. Peter's oral catechesis. Dying
about 63, St. Mark was succeeded in turn by Annianus (63-85), Abilius (85-98), and Cerdon (98-
109), all of whom were said to have been either ordained or consecrated by him. With the death
of the last of these, the apostolic age terminates at Alexandria (Eusebius, History, II, 16, 24; III, 1,
21).
Patriarchal germs. Though there is no evidence that any of three foregoing sees,
Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, claimed patriarchal rank during these years, subsequent
assertions of precedence will be based on the apostolic foundation of their sees. The Council of
Nicea in 325 formally recognized the patriarchal status of Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch as of
ancient custom, and the Council of Chalcedon (451) gave Jerusalem special honor. The Holy
See, however, preferred to derive patriarchal status from St. Peter's connection with a see. Thus
Pope Gelasius later declared that "the first see of Peter the Apostle is that of the Roman Church; .
. . the second see was instituted at Alexandria in the name of Blessed Peter by Mark, his disciple
and evangelist; . .. . the third see of the most Blessed Apostle Peter is honored at Antioch . . ."
(Decretals: D. 163). In any event, these nascent patriarchates would play an important part in the
early Church.