Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) II. Foundation of the Church
10. Primitive Christian Life and Liturgy
II
Foundation of the Church
10. PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN LIFE AND LITURGY
A. Jurisdiction: The Ruling Power
(1)THE PAPACY
Papal primacy. The history of the papacy is not a record of gradual usurpation by the
bishops of Rome, but exhibits from the first a divinely appointed primatial government. Yet the
details of universal supervision evolved slowly. Habitual and minute regulation of local churches
necessarily had to await improved means of communication. Centralization of ecclesiastical
government in Rome was in part conditioned by thee means: it will be farther advanced during
the Christian Roman Empire than during the Dark Ages. Primitive Christian communities, ardent
in pristine charity, generally required little coercion. The apostolic period accordingly had no need
for titles of "Your Holiness, tiaras, consistorial etiquette, and special technical formulas. These
were accidental trappings of the papacy, added when it became a temporal world power. Yet it is
well to note that even at this early date there was veneration for the material chair of Peter at
Rome and feasts in its honor appear with the earliest liturgical calendars. St. Peter's First Epistle,
of unchallenged authenticity, is alike the first papal encyclical. Therein are found none of the
modern titles, for Peter was ever mindful of his threefold denial which he even published to the
whole Church through St. Mark's Gospel. Yet his own writings lay particular stress on obedience:
to the king, to governors, to masters, to priests. These exhortations come with special fitness
from the chief ecclesiastical authority who, however, did not forget Christ's words: "You know that
the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them. . . . Not so is it among you . . . whoever wishes to
become great among you shall be your servant" (Matt. 20:25, 26).
Roman curia. During the apostolic period it would seem to be premature to speak of a
formally organized papal curia: we hear nothing of cardinals and congregations. Yet, if we can
put any reliance on the Liber Pontificalis and Apostolic Constitutions, St. Peter employed Sts.
Linus, Anacletus, and Clement as vicars and auxiliaries. St. Clement certainly sent legates to
Corinth. Both he and St. Evaristus are described as establishing administrative subdivisions in
Rome, and early popes are represented as ordaining bishops, priests, and deacons. The early
lives of the Liber Pontificalis are believed to be a somewhat arbitrary reconstruction and
compilation made at a later date from sources both authentic and inauthentic. While therefore
untrustworthy in details, these accounts may preserve an underlying substance of truth.

(2) THE EPISCOPACY
Episcopal hierarchy. The period marks the transition from the missionary to the
residential episcopate which may be regarded as virtually complete by the first decade of the
second era when St. Ignatius refers to bishops "to the ends of the earth" (Ephesians, 3). Each
see now had a single bishop, named by the apostles or their vicars, and ruling over priests and
deacons as well as laymen. Except in case of a challenge to their authority or a sudden vacancy,
such sees had little occasion to appeal to Rome; presumably in each see the clergy and people
chose their pastor (Didache, xv) and presented him to the hierarchical superior for confirmation
and ordination. Bishoprics are confined to the civitates, for the country districts are still largely
pagan. Multiplication of Christian communities at first usually entailed the choice of another
bishop. Daughter churches, however, would exhibit a certain deference to the bishop of the
mother church, this, combined with the civic prominence of the metropolis, would in time evolve
the archepiscopal rank. Sees founded directly by the apostles, moreover, enjoyed special
prestige; this when joined to secular influence gave rise to patriarchal dignities. Already bishops
had important social duties: supervision of virgins, widows, and orphans, and care for the needs
of the poor and slaves (St. Ignatius, To Polycarp).
(3) THE CLERGY
The clergy were either missionaries or subordinate ministers of the bishop in the cities.
They were marked off from the laity by their own discipline (St. Clement, Cor., 41-42). Though
there was no obligation of clerical celibacy, the practice was recommended by St. Paul. It was
understood, in any event, that a cleric ought to marry but once, and before his ordination.
Priests were the bishops' spiritual assistants. They were not yet pastors, for the bishop
still ruled directly the city church. They administered the sacraments only with him or in his stead:
usually they concelebrated Mass. They assisted the bishop at baptism and confirmation, though
on missions both priests and deacons baptized (Acts, chap. 8). From the beginning priests were
probably the ordinary ministers of penance and extreme unction. Holy orders has always been
the bishop's exclusive prerogative. In governing the church, the priests constituted the bishop's
advisory council. They were, therefore, rather ratione episcopi than sui juris. But all other
classes, including the deacons, were to be subject to priests "as to Jesus Christ" (St. Ignatius,
Magnesians, 2).
Deacons were temporal aides of the bishops. At this time they seem to have been the
only ministers below the rank of priest, and are undoubtedly of divine institution. The primitive
diaconate was not a mere preparation for the priesthood. Now and long afterwards Christians
regarded the diaconate as a career in itself so that many chose to remain deacons throughout
life. Though the deacons were chiefly charged with the immediate care of the poor and the
community finances, they actually exercised their spiritual functions of preaching and baptizing on
missions, and it was already or soon became their special duty to distribute Holy Communion to
the sick who could not come to church.
B. Magisterium: The Teaching Power
(1) THE ORAL CATECHESIS
Instruction in tie primitive Church was chiefly oral. The apostles' oral catecheses, though
basically the same, varied with their personalities and the needs of their converts. Sometimes
requests for written versions of these catecheses produced, under divine inspiration, the Gospels
of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, the latter two depending on the preaching of tie leading apostles,
Sts. Peter and Paul. All essential teaching, whether so written or transmitted orally, constituted a
sacred doctrinal trust, a 'deposit of faith," and St. Irenaeus will later use the apt simile of the
apostles depositing these precious truths as in a bank (A. H., III, 4). Complete with the death of
St. John the Apostle, this deposit has never suffered essential addition, though its contents have
gradually been defined more explicitly as circumstances required.
(2) WRITTEN TESTIMONY
Tradition, whether written or unwritten, and not the Bible alone has always been the
adequate font of ecclesiastical doctrine, for "even if the apostles had not left us certain writings,
would not one be obliged to follow the order of tradition which they delivered to those to whom
they committed the churches?" (St. Irenaeus, A. H., III, 4.) As long as the words of Christ or of His
apostles remained in the living memory of Christians, they tended to rely on those remembrances
rather than on the Scriptures. Thus writers of this period, the compilers of the Didache, St.
Clement, St. Ignatius, St. Polycarp, often seem to make use of implicit rather than explicit
citations of the New Testament. The patristic writings of the apostolic age may not be profound
theological dissertations, but they are the convinced affirmations of tradition by holy and
courageous men. So great was the esteem which some of these writings enjoyed that in some
Christian communities they were temporarily confused with the canonical inspired writings.
(3) EARLY HERESIES
Heresy, however, was also appearing in various forms to elicit the strictures of St. John,
St. Ignatius, and St. Polycarp.
The Nicolaites are condemned in the Apocalypse (chaps. 2, 3). Their reputed founder
was Nicholas of Antioch. According to some he was a Judas among the first seven deacons;
others believe that he was an innocent man whose name was usurped by the sect. The group
were indifferent to food sacrificed to idols, and guilty of gross immorality.
Cerinthians taught Millenarianism: after Christ's second coming an earthly paradise would
endure for a thousand years. This misconception was derived from a too literal interpretation of
the Apocalypse (20:2). Cerinthus, organizer of the sect, seems to have added alien elements.
He taught that Christ was the son of Mary and Joseph upon whom the Holy Ghost descended at
his baptism. If this be correct we can understand St. John's urging all to leave the public baths
when Cerinthus entered lest the structure collapse with such an enemy of truth within (Eusebius,
History, III, 28).
Docetae, finally, taught that Christ had merely the semblance of a body in such wise that
He only seemed-dokein: appear-to live, suffer, and die. Their error is believed to have
occasioned St. John's insistence in his Gospel on Christ's true divinity and humanity. St. Ignatius
and St. Polycarp also refuted the Docetae (Smyrneans, 2; Trallians, 9).
C. Liturgy: The Sanctifying Power
(1) THE SACRAMENTS
Baptism. In primitive times as well as now, baptism constituted an indispensable initiation
to Christianity. It was preceded by instruction in the truths of faith, though the elaborate course of
the catechumenate had not yet developed. Proximate preparation for baptism involved a one day
fast for candidate and minister. The ordinary method was by immersion in the running waters of a
stream, but in case of need, standing water, heated water, could be used, or water might be
poured on the candidate's head in the modern method of infusion. The form demanded an
explicit invocation of the Trinity: "In the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost"
(Acts, chaps. 2, 16, 19; Didache, 7).
Confirmation. The only evidence afforded of the bestowal of this sacrament is found in
the Acts (chap. 8) during this period: Sts. Peter and John confirm in Samaria. The form included
an imposition of bands, and was intended to confer the Holy Ghost in a special manner. During
the primitive period the administration of this sacrament was often accompanied by miraculous
signs (Acts, chaps. 10, 19). For long it was conferred immediately after baptism.
Penance. While Scripture testifies to Christ's institution of the power to forgive sins
(John, chap. 20), it is the Didache which gives details of its exercise (4, 14). This Christian
handbook presumes that the faithful normally attend Mass on Sundays, and that before assisting
at it they should, if necessary, "confess your sins in order that your sacrifice may be pure." No
sins were excluded from the power of absolution, nor does there seem to have been any limit to
the frequency of its exercise, since weekly confession seems to be contemplated. Christian
repentance was not merely internal, but required "union with God and the counsel of the bishop"
(St. Ignatius, Philadelphians, 8). And St. Polycarp may have this sacrament in mind when be
urges priests to be "prone to sympathy, merciful to all, bringing [the strayed] back from
wandering" (Philippians, 6).
The Holy Eucharist. Christ's Real Presence is sufficiently clear from the scriptural
evidence of its promise and institution (John, chap. 6; Matt., chap. 26; Luke, chap. 22). The literal
interpretation of the Lord's words was upheld not only by St. Paul (1 Cor. 11:27), but by the
immediate successors of the Apostles. For one, St. Ignatius exclaims: "I desire the Bread of God,
the heavenly Bread, the Bread of life, which is the flesh of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who
became afterwards of the seed of David and Abraham; I wish the drink of God, namely His blood,
which is incorruptible love and eternal life" (Romans, 7).
The Mass. The Last Supper already included the fundamental parts of the Mass: the
oblation, consecration, and communion. In addition there were accompanying rites, a lavabo, the
breaking of the host, and a concluding hymn of praise and thanksgiving. The apostolic Mass was
usually designated under the expression, "breaking of bread" (Acts, chaps. 3, 20). it is clear from
early testimony that Mass was regularly celebrated at least on Sunday. At first it usually took
place in the evening in memory of the Last Supper, but already there appeared abuses which
eventually imposed a Eucharistic fast and transferred celebration to the morning (Acts, chap. 20;
1 Cor, chap. 11). The Didache (9-10; 14-15) gives evidence of additional prayers, not yet
standardized. There is the Pater with a liturgical response: "For Thine is the power and the glory
forever"; the rudiments of a Preface, and Communion under both species with appropriate
prayers. A graffito recently discovered in the ruins of the Domus Flavia in the Roman Forum
records the reception of Viaticum and appears to date from the consulships of Commodus and
Priscus, 78 A.D. It reads: Panis accept. in luce chrestos susceptus pr. K.M. Com. Pris. CSS.
Extreme Unction, insinuated by St. Mark's reference to apostolic "anointing with oil"
(6:12), is referred to but once in extant documents of the primitive period: St. James declares that
it was intended for the sick, had a spiritual and sometimes a corporeal effect, and was to be
administered by priests (5:14). Probably by analogy with the deacons' administration of
Communion to the sick, the priests rather than the bishop administered this sacrament from the
beginning.
Holy Orders. The Acts and Pauline Epistles make it clear that episcopal consecration
and priestly and diaconal ordination were conferred through imposition of hands (Acts, chaps. 6,
13, 14; 2 Tim., chap. 1). The presbyteroi-episkopoi problem makes it difficult to distinguish
between the first two rites. At first the apostles alone appointed the three orders; later they
provided for the transmission of these essential powers through their episcopal successors (St.
Clement, Con, 42, 44). The Didache (15) indicates that the people were allowed to nominate
their local clergy as in the Acts (chap. 6), though apparently the apostles themselves chose the
first bishops in the modern sense of the term.
Matrimony, according to St. Paul, typified the espousal of Christ with His Church. It was a
sacramentum, though less in the later technical sense, than the more generic meaning of
"mystery" (Eph., chap. 5). it should be contracted before or at least with the consent of the bishop
(St. Ignatius, To Polycarp, 5). Second marriages were permitted to the laity, though they were
deemed less in accord with the symbolism of Christ's espousal with a unique Church.
(2) LITURGICAL DISCIPLINE
A disciplina arcani, according to some scholars, characterized primitive liturgical practice:
Christian mysteries, especially the Eucharist, were to be guarded from pagan ridicule and
profanation. Hence liturgical meetings were usually held privately, and no publicity given to
Christian practices. When there was danger of misrepresentation or betrayal, Christians
observed silence or spoke in symbolic terms. Converts were initiated into Christian mysteries but
gradually. Indications of such a discipline are seen in the Didache (9), Tertullian (Prescriptions,
41), and Origen (Against Celsus, 1, 7).
Liturgical services were simple and not yet standardized. Mass was said in private
houses, though later the villas of the wealthier Christians would sometimes be placed at the
disposal of the community. Altars were as yet of wood. Liturgical prayer was an adaptation of
Jewish psalmody, directed toward the Holy Eucharist and sacramental rites.
(3) CHRISTIAN PRACTICES
Domestic asceticism. The first Christians at Jerusalem were voluntary communists: all
property was held in common to be administered by the apostles and later their deputies, the
deacons. This practice, however, seems to have been dictated by the special needs of the
Palestinian community whose extreme poverty required alms from Greece (1 Cor, chap. 16). But
if in other Christian churches private property was retained, its use was supposed to be common.
In liturgical services and civic neighborliness, early Christian life tended to be a common life.
Though living in their own houses, they gathered often, if not daily, for religious observances.
They were acutely conscious of their separation from their pagan environment, especially when
persecution brought them to common hiding places. Fraternal charity was externally manifested
in the pax and the agape. But if the average primitive Christian was fervent, quite a few made
particular profession of the evangelical counsels of chastity and poverty. As yet these domestic
ascetics, virgins and widows, lived a retired life with their families.
The laity were distinct from the clergy and bound by their own precepts (St. Clement,
Cor., 42). They were subject to all orders of the hierarchy (St. Ignatius, Trallians, 3). Though the
charismatikoi or possessors of miraculous or prophetic graces were doubtless in some cases
laymen, this privilege did not exempt them from submission to the clergy (1 Cor., chaps. 12, 14;
Didache, 11;13). Such extraordinary graces were granted or at least displayed more abundantly
in the early Church to convince a pagan world. They have never ceased among mystics of all
eras, but now the Church itself by its "admirable propagation, distinguished sanctity, inexhaustible
fecundity, Catholic unity, and unconquered stability" is a sufficient motive of credibility (Vatican
Council: D. 1794). Besides the charismatikoi there were teachers, some of whom were probably
lay catechists (Didache, II, 13). Law-abiding, the Christian citizens prayed: Da concordiam ac
pacem et nobis et omnibus habitantibus terram (St. Clement, Corinthians, 60: K. 15).
Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) III. Growth of the Church (107-248)
11. Pagan Environment: Christian Rivals
III
Growth of the Church
11. PAGAN ENVIRONMENT: CHRISTIAN RIVALS
A. Introduction: Religious Contrasts
(1) PAGAN SURROUNDINGS
Christianity was but one of the oriental religions competing for Roman favor during the
first three centuries of our era. For behind the facade of official emperor-worship, a great number
of pagan cults catered to the emotions of the masses, all promising intimacy with the deity and
future happiness after initiation into certain mysterious rites. The more prominent and better
known of these cults will be surveyed presently. in addition to these, a number of philosophies,
ancient or revived, offered the more intellectual a program for human conduct. A melange of the
latter philosophies temporarily obtained official backing as Syncretism. Finally, though treated as
heresies in the present work, Gnosticism and Manichaeism will be noted as incorporating many
pagan elements. To all these rivals of Christianity, history has long since applied Gamaliel's
criterion: "If this plan or work is of men, it will be overthrown," while the Church survives.
(2) ALLEGED CHRISTIAN BORROWING
Certain ritual resemblances between pagan cults and Christian practices have led to
claims by religious evolutionists that the Christian religion is nothing else than a clever eclecticism
from Jewish and pagan sources. A priori, this hypothesis is unlikely: it would appear far more
probable that a bankrupt paganism would borrow from or imitate Christianity. A posteriori, there is
no proof of any essential dependence of Christianity upon these pagan cults; rather, the whole
trend of modern research is to reverse the borrowing. As to certain surviving similarities these
are doubtless to be attributed to that natural religious sentiment common to all men, a sentiment
which grace does not destroy but perfects.
Contrasts in essentials, moreover, exist. For instance, as Father Martindale observes,
"Mithra, like all these eastern gods, was not an historical person and nobody thought he was."
These cults were but a .glamorizing" of ancient mythologies; no matter how attractive their
ceremonial or how lofty the speculation now added to the primitive myths, the core of the religion
remained human invention and wishful thinking. Second, the moral codes of these pagan
religions were in greater or less degree at variance with natural law. If Mithraism was originally
purer than the rest in sexual morality, its eclecticism absorbed aberrations. Its worship was in
large part magical. Yet Reinach claimed that Mithra was mediator between God and man, and
pointed out that his cult involved baptism, fasts, communion, and brotherhood. To this La Grange
has replied: "The fasts and brotherhood we can admit . . . and they are found in every religion that
ever was. Everything else is incorrect. Mithra is called 'Mediator' once . . . in Plutarch, and he is
mediator between the God of Goodness and the God of Evil, We have no knowledge of any direct
relation between the sacrifice of the bull and salvation. Nor is Mithra ever sacrificed as was
Jesus. The Mithraist baptism is a simple ablution in no way different from all the rest; the
communion is nothing more than an offering of bread and water, nor can anyone say that it was
even intended to represent Mithra."
B. Pagan Religious Cults
(1) CYBELE OF PHRYGIA
During the critical days of the Second Punic War, the Romans imported from Pessinus in
Phrygia, Cybele, the Magna Mater. The object of this cult was a black stone, representing the
goddess Cybele, whose saga revolved about the premature death of her beloved, Atys. In the
spring her devotees celebrated a festival to commemorate Atys' revival. Even before his
conversion, St. Augustine was shocked by the indecent words and acts of this feast. Neophytes
dedicated themselves to the goddess by castration, and they and other cultists participated in a
tumultuous procession with symbols of the goddess. This involved self-flagellation, slashing of
flesh with knives, frenzied yells, playing of cymbals, flutes, etc., followed by unrestrained feasting.
The initiation often involved the blood-bath of taurobollium: the candidate took a shower in the
blood of oxen butchered above his head. the authorities of Republican Rome, once the menace
from Hannibal had been removed, tried in vain to ban this cult. Finally Emperor Claudius (41-54)
sanctioned its spring festival, March 15 to 27. Truly it was a bizarre and bloody fortnight.
(2) SYRIAN ASTARTE
From Syria came Astarte, Dea Syra par excellence, with various Baals, This cult in many
ways resembled the foregoing. Perhaps more than any other it was a sort of traveling circus.
"We are shown a beastly old eunuch, his bald head fringed with grizzled curls; a crew of
effeminate, painted young men, wearing turbans and robes of saffron crossed with purple stripes,
and an ass, which carried the sacred image covered with a silken veil, When it came to a village
or to some nobleman's country seat, the sorry procession halted. Then the fanatics, brandishing
swords and axes and emitting discordant howls, would whirl round and round to the
accompaniment of Syrian flutes till their long ringlets stood out. . . . At the conclusion of the crazy
performance, a collection was made among the spectators."
(3) EGYPTIAN ISIS
The Egyptian goddess Isis arrived from Alexandria and her cult was legalized by Emperor
Gains Caligula (37-41). The myth of the Nile was now surrounded with magnificent ritual. In
November was commemorated the murder of Isis's love, Osiris, whom Isis seeks and finds. Loss
and reunion provoked the cultists' frantic lamentations and these were followed by crazy glee. On
March 25, the boat of Isis, decorated and blessed, inaugurated the year's navigation. Daily,
morning and evening services were held in her temples: the statue was decorated and cultists
sprinkled with Nile water. Initiation followed a ten day abstinence; apparently pseudo-mystic lore
was imparted in a melodramatic setting: semidarkness pierced by rays of colored light against a
background of weird music and oppressive perfumes: "the thrill of a lifetime."
(4) PERSIAN MITHRAISM
Mitra, a light-god, is mentioned in the Indo-European Vedas. He reappeared as a fighting
satellite of Ahura-Mazda in Persian religion. King Mithridates of Pontus (120-63) spread the cult,
Though his soldiers were defeated by Pompey, captives communicated the cult in the Roman
army, and by 70 A.D. Mithra shrines appear in Europe. Mithraism was eclectic and adaptable: it
became in Roman times a sort of solar worship and exaltation of fighting courage. Above all it
was a soldier's religion; women were not admitted. Seven degrees of initiates are traced: Crow,
Gryphon, Soldier, Lion, Persian, Sun-Racer, Father. Some scholars think that the seventh degree
Mithraists were beaded by a Pater patrum who dwelt on Vatican Hill, for a shrine has been found
there. These shrines were narrow crypts in which worshipers had seats along the wall; beyond
the railing at the far end was an image of Mithra killing a bull; under it sacrifice to musical tunes
took place. Daily services were held in honor of the "planet of the day," while the great festival of
the sun-god was set for December 25. Bread and water seem to have been the sacrificial matter,
while the moral code stressed loyalty, fraternity, and obedience, to be rewarded at Mithra's
second coming.
C. Pagan Religious Philosophy
(1) STOICISM
Seneca, Nero's mentor, was one of the nobler Romans who refused to give themselves
over to mere emotionalism. Neither would he abandon himself to the hedonistic cynicism of "eat,
drink, and be merry, for tomorrow we die"-a sentiment expressed on surviving banquet goblets
ornamented by skeletons. To men of Seneca's disposition, Stoicism offered a stern code of duty.
For Seneca, the world was animated by a force which might be termed a soul. Man himself was
but part of this leviathan. Man's ills arose from his lack of harmony with the universe, and he
must achieve peace and happiness by self-repression, indifference, even insensibility toward
passions. Though such a doctrine was basically atheistic and fatalistic, Seneca sometimes
speaks metaphorically of the deity as a person in such wise as to lead medieval Christians to
assume that he had become a Christian. The pantheistic fatherhood of god rendered easier a
universal brotherhood of man: "Man to his fellow man is sacred; slaves are our humbler friends."
Yet Seneca, though seemingly sincere in his beliefs, remained somewhat inconsistent in his life.
Instead of detachment from material goods, he lived a comfortable existence. That Seneca's
view of Roman society was pessimistic is clear from the estimate already quoted from him. He
willingly became his own executioner in 65.
Stoic luminaries were Maximus of Tyre, a broad-minded philanthropist, Dio Chrysostom
(d. 117), a poor philosophical missionary, Marcus Aurelius, the imperial sage, author of the
Meditations, and the slave moralist Epictetus. The latter once exclaimed: "What can I do, a lame
old man, save sing God's praise and call on all men to join me in my song?" But of them all
Martindale concludes: "Such noble exclamations are but few in their Stoic self -revelation; theirs
was a stunned acquiescence in life rather than an enthusiastic acceptance of a loved and living
Master and His Cross, such as you see in À-Kempis. Yet social conscience was waking up. Both
private and public charities were becoming an institution characteristic of this age ."
(2) NEOPLATONISM
Plotinus was the chief exponent of the Neoplatonic philosophic school organized at
Alexandria by Ammonius Saccas at the beginning of the third century. If Stoicism stressed moral
activity, Neoplatonism tended toward speculation. Plotinus (d. 270) lectured at Rome for some
twenty years and numbered Emperor Gallienus and the Roman nobility among his scholars. His
system was a new theodicy, probably indebted to Philo the Jew and perhaps to Christianity. The
Plotinian deity has a sort of trinity, though its members are unequal: Being in Itself, "The One," is
alike the source of and above being; its image is Nous or Intelligence, which alone is knowable;
then follows a sort of psyche or world-soul from which human souls emanate. These,
unfortunately enclosed in matter, must free themselves before they can achieve union with deity.
The process of liberation requires asceticism, illumination, and ecstatic contemplation, the bases,
once Christianized, of the mystic "three ways." Elements of Neoplatonism were utilized by St.
Augustine and other fathers, despite the fact that Plotinus and his disciple Porphyry had issued
anti-Christian polemics.
(3) SYNCRETISM
Empress Julia Domna, and her Syrian relatives labored to fuse the foregoing pagan
elements into a revitalized religious system. To give the new paganism a counterpart of Christ,
she commissioned Philostratus to write a biography of Apollonius of Tyana (d. 100 A.D.). Though
his contemporaries described Apollonius as an unprincipled impostor, Philostratus embroidered
the data to produce a fictitious hero of the same name who would be an ideal philosopher. While
never mentioning Christ explicitly, Philostratus seems to have borrowed such details from His life
and teaching as suited his aim.
Apollonius of Tyana, according to this retouched account, was born about the beginning
of the Christian era, his advent heralded by singing of swans. After education at Tarsus, be
retired to the temple of Aesculapius to lead an ascetical life. Fruit and vegetables constituted his
food; he went barefoot and was clothed in linen; he gave up his inheritance and vowed celibacy.
After five years of self-imposed silence, he began a tour of temples. Everywhere he inquired into
rites, suggesting improvements and gathering disciples. All were astonished at his wisdom and
gift of tongues. "Do not wonder if I know all men's languages, for I also know their secret
thoughts," was his explanation. Thereupon one Damis adored him as god. His tour took
Apollonius to the sages of Babylon, the Magi of Persia, and the Indian Brahmans; it revealed that
all tenets and rites are essentially the same. On his return to Ephesus, be detected a demon; he
then began to perform prodigies to save men from demons. At Athens be delivered a discourse.
Then, warned by a dream, he went to Rome where Nero was persecuting philosophers. He
braved the tyrant, who became abashed and dismissed him. After raising a girl to life, he
journeyed to Spain and Africa. Domitian cited him to Rome where be was imprisoned. Insulted
by association with malefactors, he comforted his followers. When condemned to death, he still
promised to meet Damis at Puteoli. "What, alive?" asks Damis. "Alive in my opinion, but in yours
raised from the dead," is his reply. Later he convinced Damis of the reality of his escape from
Rome by having Damis feel him. At Ephesus they had a vision of Domitian's assassination.
Nerva now requested advice and Damis was sent back with a message. This was only a ruse of
Apollonius who advised: "Conceal your life, but if you cannot do that, conceal your death." Damis
never saw him again, and no one knows if Apollinius died. Some say that be finally disappeared
in a temple as virgins sang: "Leave earth and come to heaven." Thomas Allies from whom this
summary is derived, comments: "If the manifold resemblances before noted assure us that
Apollonius was intended to be a heathen Christ, the contrast here shown goes to the very bottom
of the fundamental antagonism between philosophical heathenism in what we may certainly call
its highest form, and the Christian faith.
Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) III. Growth of the Church (107-248)
12. The Growth of Missions
III
Growth of the Church
12. THE GROWTH OF MISSIONS
A. Introduction: Causes of Christian Growth
(1) THEOLOGICAL CAUSE
The only adequate cause of the rapid propagation of Christianity amid a hostile and
physically superior pagan environment is divine providence which effected through feeble human
instruments a stupendous moral miracle.
The obstacles hindering Christian growth were naturally insuperable. Christ's human
nationality, shameful death, and seeming failure repelled the haughty Graeco-Roman
intelligentsia. His doctrine, however attractive, demanded sacrifice of intellectual pride by belief in
mysteries, and of deeply rooted vices by the acceptance of a strict moral code. Christ, moreover,
demanded man's exclusive religious loyalty: no compromise with other religions, official or
private, was allowed. Prejudices and jealous Messianic dreams deterred Jews, while even welldisposed
pagans were antagonized by calumnies against Christian practices. Finally, for the
masses oppressed with temporal ills, a persecuted Church could offer no material gain, but only a
distant eternal recompense.
(2) HISTORICAL CAUSES
Dispositive instrumental causes employed by Providence are listed by Cardinal
Hergenroether: (1) The spotless life of the average primitive Christian; (2) the invincible courage
of martyrs, especially women and children; (3) the zeal of converts to share their faith with
acquaintances; (4) the international outlook of a Church growing amid a "melting-pot" of peoples;
(5) the sublimity of her teachings, as contrasted with: (6) the empty worn-out misery of paganism;
(7) the undermining of pagan polytheism both by the better philosophies and by agnosticism; (8)
the intrepid zeal of apologists and controversialists; (9) the leniency of certain emperors,
Antonine, Alexander; and (10) the promise of liberty and dignity for women and slaves.
Conclusion: The terminus ad quem chosen for this period is 248 A.D., when Rome
celebrated her thousandth anniversary with great pomp. At the helm of the world empire on this
occasion was Emperor Philip, an Arabian Christian. To be sure, be does not seem to have been
a very exemplary Christian, but that any member of this despised minority religion should mount
the imperial throne within two centuries was startling enough. The mustard seed had indeed
grown rapidly to bring the imperial eagles to rest in its branches. Yet this triumph was but the
early Church's Palm Sunday; in 249 the reactionary Emperor Decius was to inaugurate an
unlimited persecution which would submit the Church to her Passion, and ordeal of great
suffering.
B. The Western Patriarchate
(1) THE ROMAN SEE (108-250)
Liturgical pioneers. The following survey will summarize the known activity of the early
popes; certain pontificates will have more detailed treatment elsewhere in regard to specialized
topics. Practically all details concerning the popes of the first half of the second century are
derived from the Liber Pontificalis. This dubiously reliable source ascribes to them the following
liturgical innovations. St. Alexander (108-18) could have introduced the venerable qui pridie into
the Mass, as well as instituting holy water. St. Sixtus I (118-28) may have added the Sanctus. St.
Telesphorus (128-38) is said to have sanctioned the Gloria at Christmas, though it was not yet
permitted at other times. Pope Hyginus (138-41) is assigned a vaguely described regulation Of
clerical discipline. The same is said of St. Pius I (141-55), best known as brother of the patristic
writer Hermas.
Primatial assertors. St. Anicetus (155-67) gently but firmly rejected St. Polycarp's effort to
extend the Asiatic computation of Easter. When the holy Bishop of Smyrna claimed that he had
been instructed by St. John the Apostle to celebrate Easter on the 14th, no matter what day of the
week, St. Anicetus opposed a Roman tradition from St. Peter which fixed the Paschal celebration
for the Sunday nearest the 14th. The contestants parted amicably without convincing one
another. During the same pontificate St. Hegesippus came to Rome from Syria and compiled a
list of bishops. St. Soter (167-76) wrote a letter to Corinth which was respectfully acknowledged
by St. Denis, bishop of Corinth. St. Eleutherus (176-89) received an appeal regarding the
Montanist heresy, and apparently aided in its condemnation. Rome was visited by St. Irenaeus of
Lyons, who rendered classic testimony to papal primacy, Finally, Pope St. Victor (189-99) insisted
on the definitive settlement of the Easter controversy in favor of the Roman tradition; when
Bishop Polycrates of Ephesus resisted, he and the Asiatic hierarchy were threatened with
censure. The details of the settlement are unknown. St. Irenaeus seems to have intervened as
peacemaker, but in any event the Roman tradition had definitely triumphed by the time of the
Nicene Council in 325.
Defenders of penance. St. Hippolytus, a Roman priest, aided Pope St. Zepherinus (199-
217), who appears to have been a kindly pontiff somewhat imposed upon by heretics. When St.
Calixtus (217-22), St. Zepherinus's deacon and successor, opposed penitential rigorism, St.
Hippolytus became the first antipope, with Tertullian's support. St. Urban (222-30) is said to have
converted St. Cecilia's spouse, Valerian. St. Pontian (230-35) had the consolation of reconciling
St. Hippolytus before their joint martyrdom. St. Anther (235-36) promptly followed them to the
martyr's crown. The period ends with Pope St. Fabian (236-50) who definitively organized
Roman parishes; in his pontificate also mention is made of subdeaconship and minor orders.
From the pontificate of St. Anicetus, comparatively reliable information is supplied by Eusebius,
though it is only with St. Urban that the duration of, papal pontificates can be dated with
exactitude.
(2) ITALY
Suburban sees. During this period Rome seems to have remained the sole metropolitan
see throughout the Italian peninsula. By the end of the period it is estimated that there were
40,000 Christians in Rome and vicinity. At this time some of the suburban sees, which later gave
titles to cardinal-bishops, made their appearance. Both the Liber Pontificalis and St. Augustine
assert the antiquity of the Ostian see whose bishop acquired the privilege of consecrating the
bishop of Rome. Possibly Porto, Albano, and Tibur also became sees before the end of the
period, for in 251 Pope St. Cornelius held a council at Rome attended by sixty bishops (St.
Cyprian, Letter 13; Eusebius, History, VI, 43).
Peninsular sees. The only bishoprics which certainly appear during this period in lower
Italy are those of Puteoli, Pompeii, and Naples. Probably these churches were founded from
Rome, for some of their legends claim missionaries dispatched by St. Peter. But here
Christianity-as indeed throughout the West-still remained chiefly an urban religion; the country
districts were tenaciously rooted in pagan superstitions.
Lombard sees. Milan, Ravenna, and Aquileia were certainly sees by this time, though
their foundation by apostolic men cannot be established. But episcopal lists are preserved, and
the titulars are often mentioned in councils. The church at Ravenna seems to have been
centered at the port of Classe, and the presence of Orientals at this port may indicate the point of
departure for the evangelization of upper Italy, Christianity also had certainly reached Verona and
Brescia.
(3) GAUL
Provence. The ancient Roman provincia may well have been the first part of Gaul to be
evangelized. Before 250 there seem to have been sees at Narbonne, Arles, and Toulouse. It is
to that year that St. Gregory of Tours assigns the coming of seven missionaries from Rome:
Trophimus to Arles, Paul to Narbonne, Saturninus to Toulouse, Gatian to Tours, Denis to Paris,
Martial for Limoges, and Austremonius to Clermont. St. Gregory appears mistaken about the
date, though not necessarily in regard to the substance of the facts. Gallic episcopal lists remain
fragmentary and unreliable during this period.
Lyons is the principal, and the only certainly established see before the third century. Its
first known bishop was St. Pothinus, who with many of his flock was martyred in 177. Hence
Christianity along the Rhone must date from at least the middle of the second century. St.
Irenaeus succeeded St. Pothinus and before his death in 202 extended the Gallic mission to
Tours, Chalons, and Autun, and perhaps the Rhine. Lyons seems to have retained supervision of
the newer communities for a time, for Eusebius refers to the "various Christian communities of
Gaul of which Irenaeus was bishop" (History, V, 23).
Roman Germany. The flourishing Christianity of the Rhineland at the beginning of the
fourth century argues to early third century origins. The area was evangelized from Gaul (St.
Irenaeus, A. H., 1, 10) and patristic writers refer to it as the Christian frontier (Arnobius, Against
Gentiles, 1, 16). St. Maternus, first known bishop of Cologne, was a contemporary of
Constantine the Great, and a delegate to the Council of Arles in 314.
(4) SPAIN
Fragmentary data about Christian churches in Spain are gained from allusions by St.
Irenaeus (A. H., 1, 4) and Tertullian (Against Jews, 7) about the beginning of the third century.
About fifty years later, St. Cyprian of Carthage (Letter 77) was consulted about Bishops Basilides
of Leon and Martial of Merida. Other correspondence of St. Cyprian pertaining to the baptismal
controversy reveals sees at Saragossa, Tarragona, Galicia, and Lusitania. Reports of various
councils would suggest that the Spanish hierarchy was already numerous, though it is not easy to
identify the sees in the vague ancient references. Long before the middle of the third century,
then, Spain must have been widely evangelized.
(5) BRITAIN
General references to Christians in Britain appear in the works of Tertullian (A. J., 7) and
Origen (On Ezechial, IV, 1). It seems clear that the Britons, kinsmen of the Gauls, received their
Christianity from Gaul, and that the development of British communities must have therefore been
subsequent to those on the Continent. Probably Christianity, like Romanization, was less firmly
rooted in Britain than in Gaul, since it was almost overwhelmed by the Anglo-Saxon invasions.
There can be no doubt, however, that the Faith had been planted in Britain long before her
bishops came to the Council of Arles in 314.
(6) NORTH AFRICA
Christian origins. The first historical notice of the presence of Christians in proconsular
Africa occurs about 180 when a dozen citizens of the little town of Scillium were martyred at
Carthage (Kirch, 78-90). This circumstance would indicate that Christianity had already made
some progress into rural areas. Certainly Tertullian's writings reveal a flourishing Christian
community at the end of the second century, though his suggestion that the Christians
outnumbered pagans is certainly rhetorical exaggeration (Apologeticum, 37; Against Jews, 7).
Carthage emerges as the chief see. It exercised a sort of primatial jurisdiction over all of
proconsular Africa, though it was not formally accorded metropolitan rank until much later. St.
Cyprian states that already in 200 Bishop Agrippinus, the first ordinary known by name, presided
over a council of 70 bishops, but neither date nor numbers can be otherwise checked. Bishop
Donatus of Carthage is said to have presided over a council of 90 bishops between 236 and 248.
He was succeeded by the famous St. Cyprian who convened a like number in 256. Certainly the
subsequent sacramental controversies reveal that the African Church was already one of the
largest and most influential of Christendom, and even disposed to question Rome's lead in the
heat of controversy (St. Cyprian, Letters 55, 71, 73).
C. Oriental Patriarchates
(1) ALEXANDRIA
Hierarchical organization. Beginning with St. Mark, Eusebius (History, I-V) enumerated
eleven bishops of Alexandria between 50 and 190, of whom we know little more than the names.
Yet by the opening of the third century nearly every Egyptian district had a Christian congregation,
and the bishop of Alexandria had many sees subject to his jurisdiction. Thus Bishop Demetrius
(190-233) is virtually a patriarch, and his see will become the second in the Catholic world, to be
formally recognized as such at Nicea in 325. Evangelization continued to advance rapidly so that
at the close of the third century even villages had been converted.
Catechetical school. Alexandria had become a center of profane learning, and it is
natural that the Stoic philosopher Pantaenus, once fired with Christian zeal, would think of
erecting a school in that city. About 180 be laid the foundations of a school which became almost
a Christian university under his successors as rector, Clement and Origen. The latter was the
most learned of Christian exegetes before St. Jerome, and exercised widespread influence, not
wholly confined to Christian circles. His successors as head of the academy, Heraclas and
Dionysius, eventually succeeded to the Alexandrian patriarchate. Alexandria furnished the first
summa theologica in Origen's Peri Archon, though it would also nourish the heresiarch Arius who
pushed the latter's subordinationism to a denial of Christ's divinity.
(2) ANTIOCH
Patriarchal evolution. In regard to Antioch also, Eusebius furnishes little more than the
names of St. Ignatius's early successors from 107 to 171. But St. Theophilus (171-83) was a
distinguished apologist, and his second successor Serapion (190-203) was also an ecclesiastical
writer engaged in combating Marcionitism. By this time Antioch had supplanted Jerusalem as the
chief see of the Syrian littoral. Missionaries from Antioch founded many churches so that its
bishop began to achieve patriarchal status, a position formally recognized at Nicea. Before that
the career of Bishop Paul of Samosata (260-70) would indicate the social prominence of the
Antiochian prelate, not wholly for good.
Edessa became one of Antioch's chief suffragan sees. It was the capital of the client
principality of Osrohoene whose ruler Agbar IX (179-214) became a Christian and promoted the
Gospel. During this reign Patriarch Serapion consecrated the Syrian bishop Palout. After Roman
annexation of the principality in 214 ties with Antioch became stronger. Edessa in turn sent
missionaries beyond the imperial frontiers to Armenia and Parthia.
Asia Minor had been evangelized by St. Paul from Antioch, ecclesiastical control passed
to Ephesus and Neo-Caesarea in Pontus; these sees were recognized as metropolitan at Nicea.
Cyprus, the see of St. Barnabas, also vindicated jurisdictional autonomy. St. Gregory
Thaumaturgus, graduate of Origen's school in 238, became a great missionary in Asia Minor.
(3) JERUSALEM
Gentile predominance. After the suppression of the last Jewish rising of Bar-Kochba in
135, Gentile leadership prevailed in Judea. The Christian community seems to have become
largely Gentile, and Caesarea began to claim metropolitan rights over the apostolic see of
Jerusalem thereby beginning disputes not settled until 451. Little is known of the 27 bishops who
succeeded St. Simeon until we come to St. Narcissus (189-97; 210-12), a great wonder worker.
Calumniated, be resigned to become a hermit, but after his accusers had been signally punished,
returned to his see. He was one of the Palestinian hierarchy that attended a council regarding
the Paschal question about 190 (Eusebius History, V, 23-25).
(4) GREECE
Extra-patriarchal status seems to have prevailed in St. Paul's European foundations,
though Rome claimed them as part of the Latin patriarchate. Eventually they would be embraced
in the Byzantine patriarchate, but during this period Byzantium, the Constantinople of the future,
was not yet a see. Corinth and Thessalonia became metropolitan sees, and Nicopolis came to
the fore in Epirus. St. Paul's apostolic foundations in Greece, Thrace, and Macedonia would
seem to be flourishing at this time, though details of their growth are lacking. Illyricum remains in
obscurity before Diocletian's persecution at the opening of the fourth century, but the number of
martyrs at that time argues to its evangelization during the third century.
Conclusion: Though statistics are not available, it would seem certain that Christian
missions proceeded more rapidly and successfully in the East than in the West. In the latter area
few communities had been established outside the urban civitas, while in the Orient whole
country districts had become Christian. But where results were not yet AP-parent, the Christian
yeast was already working: the mass conversions of later times were being prepared by the
patient labors of anonymous missionaries.
Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) III. Growth of the Church (107-248)
13. Growth of Opposition: Early Persecutions
III
Growth of the Church
13. GROWTH OF OPPOSITION: EARLY PERSECUTION
A. Persecution by Western Imperialism
Introduction: During the second century the legal gens of Emperor Nerva gave the
Empire its Golden Age. These "Good emperors," Romanized provincials, combined appreciation
of Roman legal traditions with solicitude for the general good of the world empire. Cultured
agnostics, they regarded the state paganism chiefly as an instrument of promoting imperial unity.
Their opposition to Christianity, then, was motivated more by political than religious concerns:
they seem more interested in curbing it as an alien ideology than in exterminating it as religion. It
may be remarked that St. Augustine's enumeration of "Ten Persecutions" is merely conventional;
local prosecution was intermittent.
(1) EMPEROR TRAJAN (98-117)
Marcus Ulpius Trajanus succeeded his adopted father Nerva. Under this great general
and able administrator the Empire reached its widest extent with the conquest of Dacia, modern
Romania. Though Nero's edict remained imperial policy, its execution depended largely on
provincial governors and local conditions.
Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia in Asia Minor, reported about 111 what he
considered a serious, if not critical problem: "This is the course that I have adopted in the case of
those brought to me as Christians. I ask them if they are Christians. If they admit it, I repeat the
question a second and a third time, threatening capital punishment; if they persist, I sentence
them to death, for I do not doubt that, whatever crime it may be to which they have confessed,
their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy should certainly be punished....... An anonymous
pamphlet was issued, containing many names....... All who denied that they were or had been
Christians I considered should be discharged, . . . especially because they cursed Christ, a thing
which, it is said, genuine Christians cannot be induced to do. But I found nothing but a depraved
and extravagant superstition, and therefore I postponed my examination and had recourse to you
for consultation" (Correspondence, X, 96).
Trajan's rescript reflects the opportunism of a secure ruler: "You have taken the right line,
my dear Pliny, in examining the cases of those denounced to you as Christians, for no hard and
fast rule of universal application can be laid down. They are not to be sought out; if they are
informed against, and the charge is proved, they are to be punished with this reservation, that if
anyone denies he is a Christian and actually proves it, that is by worshipping the gods, be shall
be pardoned as a result of his recantation, however suspect be may have been in regard to the
past. Pamphlets published anonymously should carry no weight in any charge whatsoever. They
constitute a very bad precedent and are also out of keeping with this age." Hence Christians were
to be held in check without unduly disturbing public order in their pursuit: shrewd politics but
moral inconsistency later flayed by Tertullian's sarcasm.
Martyrs reported by name during the persecution of Trajan are St. Clement of Rome, said
to have been exiled to the Crimea, St. Ignatius of Antioch, thrown to the beasts, and St. Simeon
of Jerusalem, crucified by Prefect Atticus.
(2) EMPEROR ADRIAN (117-38)
Publius Aelius Hadrianus, Trajan's adopted son, was also a competent administrator,
though opposed to military expansion. He was a great traveler and in his wake appeared
throughout the Empire better government, more sumptuous buildings, and greater interest in the
arts. In substance, be continued his predecessor's policy toward the Christians. About 125 his
rescript to Minucius Fundanus, proconsul of Asia, confirmed the ban upon anonymous letters as
evidence, though account was to be taken of proven indictments. Rash denunciations were
discouraged by a penalty to the plaintiff in case of failure to prove his charge (Eusebius, History,
IV, 9).
Popular indignation against Christians, consequently, proved more dangerous than
imperial prosecution during this reign. The atrocious calumnies circulated against them were
ignored by conscientious governors, but malicious or weak administrators in sympathy with the
accusers could circumvent the imperial rescripts, or ignore murders perpetrated during riots.
Symphorosa and her seven sons are said to have suffered martyrdom at this time.
Christian apologists tried to defend the Christians against these calumnies by memorials
to the emperor or the senate. The first of these champions, Quadratus and Aristides, wrote
during Adrian's reign. The latter compared barbarian, Greek, Jewish, and Christian religions to
conclude to the superiority of Christianity. Hence, he argued, Christians, far from being
persecuted, ought to be taken as models (Eusebius, History, IV, 3).
(3) EMPEROR ANTONINE I (138-61)
Titus Aurelius Antoninus Pius was perhaps the best of the pagan emperors in
moral character. Likewise an able ruler, he guided the Empire in peaceful and prosperous times.
According to Blessed Melito of Sardis, be sent a rescript to the Asiatic proconsular assembly in
response to Christian apologies, urging forbearance toward the Christians who should be
punished, if at all, by the gods they had offended (Eusebius,,History, IV, 13). The authenticity of
this document has been seriously questioned; perhaps Christian interpolations have overlaid a
basic truth.
Local administrators in any event made use of the anti-Christian laws still unrepealed. St.
Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, was the victim of a popular riot before which Proconsul Quadratus
yielded. With eleven of his diocesans, the bishop was executed after the immortal response:
"Eighty-six years have I served Christ, and He has never done me evil; how could I blaspheme
my King and Savior?" Prefect Urbicus of Rome executed the catechist Ptolemy and two other
Christians, and Popes Hyginus and Pius are reported as martyrs during the reign. At Jerusalem,
Bishop Mark is also said to have suffered.
(4) EMPEROR MARK (161-80)
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was Antonine's adopted successor. He strove to rule in
accord with enlightened Stoic philosophy, but this more positive view toward religion made him
less tolerant of Christians. He took a personal interest in their repression, and issued a new
edict: "Whoever introduces new sects or religions whose true nature is unknown and thereby
excites the people, shall be banished if he be of noble birth, and killed by the sword if he be of
mean extraction" (Kirch, 77). The alarming Teutonic inroads on the northern frontier may also
have made the emperor more apprehensive of internal religious dissent.
The Thundering Legion episode, pronounced legendary by Zeiller, is reported by
Tertullian (Apologeticus, 15) and Eusebius (V, 5). During a Marcomanian campaign, it is said, the
Roman army was weakened by thirst in face of the enemy. At the prayers of the Melitine Legion,
largely Christian, a storm arose bringing rain to thirsty Romans and lightning to terrified Teutons.
The emperor attributed the incident to Jupiter Pluvius.
The Martyrs of Lyons in 177 have acta of unquestioned reliability. During the governor's absence
popular fury vented itself on the Christians, and survivors were denounced to him on his return.
Despite Momentary wavering, all the accused eventually suffered heroically, from the
nonagenarian Bishop Pothinus to the slave girl Blandina (Eusebius, History, V, 24).
Other martyrs known by name are Bishops Publius of Athens, Sagaris of Laodicea, and
Thraseas of Eumenia; St. Cecilia and her companions at Rome, and St. Justin the Apologist,
together with six companions. St. Justin, according to his authentic acta, closed his apologetical
career by a courageous defense of the Faith before the urban prefect (Eusebius, History, IV, 16).
(5) RELAPSE INTO ANARCHY (180-97)
Marcus Aurelius Commodus (180-92), Emperor Mark's own son, broke the record of
"good emperors," for this careless libertine neglected imperial affairs. From 182, plots in the
senate and mutinies in the army were frequent until the mentally unbalanced ruler was killed.
During his reign Senator Apollonius was executed following a defense of Christianity in the senate
itself (Eusebius, History, V, 21). At Carthage, about 180, Sparatus and eleven companions were
executed by Proconsul Saturninus (Kirch, 78). Yet the emperor's fondness for his Christian
concubine Marcia induced him to heed pleas for the pardon of some confessors condemned to
the Sardinian mines.
Anarchy became complete while the senate strove to name successors to Commodus in
Pertinax (192-93) and Julian (193), and the leading generals vied for possession of the capital.
Of these rivals, Pescenius Niger of the Syrian corps, Clodius Albinus of the British occupation
forces, and Septimius Severus of the Pannonian legions, the last emerged as undisputed ruler by
197. Hitherto a senatorial and equestrian aristocracy had co-operated with enlightened rulers;
henceforth the army emerged in control of a sheer military despotism.
B. Persecution by Oriental Syncretism
Introduction: During the second century the Roman melting pot had diluted Roman
with Oriental blood. In the third century many of the emperors themselves were Orientals with but
a veneer of Roman culture. With slight appreciation of Roman political and religious traditions,
they were more concerned with introducing native religious ideas or fusing them into the
philosophic synthesis called Syncretism. When Christians refused invitation to the new pantheon,
they were pursued with the bigotry of thwarted Rotarianism. Legal forms were now less
respected; significantly, the jurist Papinian coined the maxim, quidquid placuit principi legis habet
vigorem.
(1) THE SYRIAN DYNASTY (193-235)
Lucius Septimius Severus (193-211), a native of Africa, secured Rome and senatorial
recognition in 193, but was not without rivals until 197. Perhaps by reason of a cure by a
Christian physician, Severus did not at once persecute the Church. But increasingly he came
under the influence of his wife, the Syrian Julia Domna, devotee of the Oriental mystery cults.
Toward the end of the second century be reapplied the persecuting edicts. With scant respect for
his predecessors' legal scruples, he abandoned the norm of conquirendi non sunt for
governmental prosecution. In 202 be forbade conversions to Judaism and Christianity and
admitted the testimony of informers. Severe persecution continued to the end of his reign,
provoking Tertullian's defiance: Semen est sanguis Christianorum. The School of Alexandria was
temporarily dispersed, and Origen's father Leonidas martyred. Other Egyptian martyrs were
Basilides, the virgin Potamaeia and her mother. At Carthage, Sts. Felicitas and Perpetua beaded
a great number of victims.
Syncretism became Julia Domna's cherished dream. She sought to unite Oriental
paganism and Christian heresies into a latitudinarian religion. All cults were sanctioned and
temples erected to all gods as diverse manifestations of a single pantheistic deity. About this time
Philostratus produced his Apollonius of Tyana, and Ammonius Saccas began to impart
Neoplatonism at Alexandria, for a time numbering Origen among his students.
Emperor Antonine II (211-17), nicknamed Caracalla, followed his father Severus. Chiefly
in order to increase income from taxes, he extended citizenship to all freemen of the Empire in
212. He seems to have been indifferent to Christianity, for there are but few notices of martyrdom
in his reign, and these chiefly from the jurisdiction of Proconsul Scapula in Africa (211-13).
Macrinus (217-18), formerly a Moorish officer, gained the throne by assassinating
Caracalla. But his pusillanimous policy and his parsimony in paying his troops convinced the
latter of the advantage of returning to the old dynasty. They proclaimed a grandson of Julia
Moesa, sister of Julia Domna, as emperor, and slew Macrinus. The latter, then, had little chance
to persecute.
Antonine III (218-22), better known by his priestly title of Heliogabalus, left politics largely
to his grandmother Moesa. Formerly votary of the sun-god at Emesa, he tried to promote its cult
at Rome itself. His immoral and fantastic antics threatened the ancient Roman gods more than
Christianity. There were still enough old-fashioned Romans to assassinate him.
Alexander (222-35), a cousin of the preceding, was then raised to the throne. He was
dominated by his mother, Julia Mammaea, who sought to persuade the Christians into the
syncretist fold. To this end she held discussions with Origen and had a statue of Christ placed in
the Pantheon. Alexander himself was mild and benevolent, but his payment of tribute to
barbarians outraged his troops who killed him (Eusebius, History, VI, 28).
(2) PHANTOM EMPERORS (235-49)
Maximin the Thracian was the chief beneficiary of Alexander's murder. Though never
officially recognized by the senate this giant barbarian was for three years ruler de facto of much
of the empire. Intent on exterminating his predecessor's partisans, among whom he naturally
reckoned the Christians, the usurper promptly issued an edict of persecution which in quick
succession struck down Popes Pontian and Anther, and St. Hippolytus. The storm was violent
but brief, for Maximin had to contend with rivals who at length triumphed over him.
Gordian III (238-44), an ancient Roman whose father and grandfather had been imperial
contenders before him, was something of a " constitutional monarch." But the senate's attempt to
exclude the army from politics proved a failure, for presently the praetorian prefect, Philip the
Arabian, murdered Gordian and took his throne.
Philip (244-49) is reputed to have been a Christian of some sort. At any rate peace
descended on the Church so that church edifices were openly built or rebuilt. But Philip's reign,
reaching its climax in the Roman millenary festival of 248, was but a brief calm before the "Ordeal
of the Church."
Conclusion: This roster of known and anonymous witnesses to Christ, impressive as it is,
yields in importance to their dispositions. This idea is brought out in the response of St. Felicitas,
moaning in prison during the pangs of childbirth. Asked by the jailer how she would ever be able
to face the greater pain of the beasts, she replied: "Now I suffer what I suffer, but then Another
shall be in me who will suffer for me, because I too am ready to suffer for Him."
Catholic Church History
Pagan Imperialism (49 B.C.-313 A.D.) III. Growth of the Church (107-248)
14. Growth of "Superior Knowledge": Gnosticism
III
Growth of the Church
14. GROWTH OF "SUPERIOR KNOWLEDGE": GNOSTICISM
A. Gnostic Origins
(1) REMOTE PAGAN SOURCES
Learned speculation in religion and philosophy did not always have happy results. In
religion there was the danger that morbid emotionalism would degenerate into a mere sexual cult.
Philosophic conceit in lofty speculation, on the other band, could beget a contempt for the
masses, and pedants were tempted to construct an esoteric gnosis, a supposedly "superior
knowledge" not communicated to the common herd. Christianity, with its restrained religious
sentiment and lofty yet simple dogmas, would not long satisfy such dabblers in the occult. They
refused to admit that Christian revelation had settled once and for all questions of the divine
nature, of the origin of the universe, of the meaning of evil. Not content with orthodox Christianity,
they proceeded to elaborate on it. But Christianity had given them new terms and opened vistas
which had already achieved popularity. Gnostics, like later "Modernists," did not scruple to
employ traditional Catholic terminology in a secret, perverted sense that threatened to trap the
unwary pious soul.
Hellenistic background. "Recent investigations have proved that ever since Alexander
the Great inaugurated the Hellenistic period with his triumphal conquests of the Orient there
developed this strange mixture of Oriental religion and Greek philosophy which we call
Gnosticism. From the Oriental religions Gnosticism inherited the belief in an absolute dualism
between God and the world, between soul and body, the derivation of good and bad from two
fundamentally different principles and substances, and the longing for redemption and
immortality. From Greek philosophy Gnosticism received its speculative element. Thus the
speculations concerning mediators between God and the world were incorporated from
Neoplatonism; a naturalistic kind of mysticism from Neopythagoreanism; and the appreciation of
the individual and his ethical task from Neostoicism ."
(2) PROXIMATE JEWISH ORIGINS
Simon Magus, according to St. Irenaeus (A. H., 1, 23), was father of all Gnostic systems.
Repulsed by St. Peter, be proceeded to fashion his own cult in which he was not only prophet and
priest, but god as well. on his tours he exhibited Helena, a slave prostitute, as his divine consort.
Legend relates that Simon Magus perished in the failure of an acrobatic feat before Nero.
Menander, another Samaritan, was able to continue the sect with the use of new magical tricks.
Saturninus, a Syrian, made a distinction between Yahweh and an unseen, ineffable god
who sent Christ to free men from the supposed tyranny of the Jewish deity; thus arose the idea of
opposition between the Old and New Testaments.
Cerdon, another Syrian, combined the foregoing notions with other features of Docetism.
This primitive Gnostic taught Marcion at Rome, and thus influenced this half-Gnostic, half-rigorist
sect founded by Marcion (St. Irenaeus, A. H., I, 27).
B. Gnostic Doctrines
(1) BASILIDEAN DUALISM
Basilides flourished at Alexandria during the reigns of Adrian and Antonine. He is said to
have been a disciple of Menander at Antioch or Smyrna. His system is known chiefly through the
descriptions of Sts. Irenaeus and Hippolytus, which vary in certain details, probably because the
Basilidean speculation was ever fluid. The following composite account, then, cannot pretend to
meticulous accuracy.
Cosmology. All things begin with nothing, or the god that is not probably what is meant is
that the first deity is an abstraction. From this emanates a threefold being. Its first part, spiritual,
flies up and is joined with the nonbeing. The second, less spiritual, fails in a like attempt, but
eventually achieves its aim with the aid of an emanation, Holy Breath. The third part, still less
spiritual, completely fails in attempting reunion. In vain does it seek to imitate the second part by
generating Great Archon. The latter, remaining in ignorance of the primordial nonbeing,
generates Second Archon, which produces the upper heaven or ether. A series of generations
result in 365 archons and 365 heavens, each more perfect than the foregoing. Our world,
unworthy of archons, is either self-produced, or according to St. Irenaeus, fashioned by the
lowest archon.
Soteriology. The third filiation of nonbeing still must be reunited with the primordial being.
Salvation is the task of achieving this reunion. Great Archon ruled the world until Moses, when he
was replaced by Second Archon. Only at the appearance of the Christian Gospel did Great
Archon realize that be was not the supreme divine being. This revelation descended down the
archons and reached mankind when Holy Breath descends on the man Savior, a composite of
elements from all the archons. Then the account of the Christian Gospel is followed until the
Savior ascends into heaven where he is successively purified of the material archon-elements,
and thereby rendered capable of reinstating the third filiation into the primordial nonbeing.
Morality. Human morality consists in working out an analogous purification in men. This
is effected by taking out their appendices: by this term Basilides designates material passions
and sins which all have, some from a previous existence. The appendices are pictured in
archaeological remains as small wolves, monkeys, lions, snakes, etc. They seem to have a sort
of independent existence, and must be expelled, if not in this life, at least in another:
metempsychosis is a feature of the Basilidean system. Basilides and his son Isidore
recommended ordinary morality, but their successors perverted this into an immoral cult. When
self-purification is complete, the primordial nonbeing will emit an ignorance-gas so that every
category, filiations, archons, and men will be unaware of the ranks above. Each order, believing
itself highest, will then live happily ever after.
(2) VALENTINIAN NUPTIAL GNOSTICISM
Valentinus is the other indispensable name in Gnostic evolution. This individual was also
born in Egypt. it would be gratuitous to describe him as a disciple of Basilides, though be seems
to have learned of the previous system and tried to improve on it. Valentinus came to Rome
where he tried to convince Pope Hyginus to adopt his theories. After the pontiff had rejected him,
Valentinus retired to Cyprus where be died about 160.
Valentinianism, here Presented in some detail, is regarded by St. Irenaeus as Gnosticism
par excellence. This system as portrayed by the Catholic polemicist, incorporates certain
developments of Valentinus's disciples. Fantastic as this system seems, its pseudo-mystic lore
reappears in different degrees in later historic sects: Albigensianism, Cabalism, Red Masonry, etc.
Theology. All begins with Bythus alias Proarche alias Propator, whom Gnostics identified
with God the Father. For this and subsequent eons, literal English renditions will be used where
possible. Father had a cognate eon, known as Silence. Valentinus adds to Basilidean
progression nuptial pairs. Thus Father and Silence generate Mind. Though Mind is the Father's
sole begotten, from somewhere comes a consort, Truth, with whom be generates Word and Life.
These now generate Man and Assembly, demigods not to be confused with earthly denizens.
These first eight eons constitute the Ogdoad, first grade of the Pleroma, or ring of gods. Word
and Life beget a Decade: ten eons named Deep, Mingling, Undecaying, Union, Self-Existent, and
Pleasure; Immovable, Blending, Only-Begotten II, and Happiness. Then Man and Assembly
generate the Duodecade: Advocate and Faith, Ancestral and Hope, Metrical and Love, Praise and
Understanding, Churchman and Felicity, Desired and Wisdom. The fifteen pairs of eons, male
and female, seem to be concrete expressions of Valentinus's concept of abstract divine attributes.
It is clear, therefore, that Christ lived a hidden life of thirty years in honor of the thirty eons of the
Pleroma.
Ethereal friction. Wisdom, lowest eon, tried to understand the Father. Her vain attempt
to share this exclusive prerogative of Mind threw her into a passion; in her bewilderment she
generated Acamoth, a formless substance at once cast out of the Pleroma. To avert a repetition
of such an incident, Mind produced Anointed (Christ) and Holy Spirit, who purified the Pleroma by
teaching the eons that Mind alone could know the Father. In gratitude for this enlightenment, the
eons produced Savior. The Christian phrase, "for all aeons of aeons," Valentinus points out, is
obviously in honor of these thirty-three eons.
Cosmology. Acamoth lacked form and understanding. The first it received from
Anointed, the second from Holy Spirit. Thereupon it tried to enter the Pleroma, but Horos
frightened it away with "Iao" -a deeply significant term. In despair Acamoth now generated
earthly elements. From her desire of returning to the Pleroma came Demiurge; from her tears,
water-aside by Irenaeus: this will do for salt water, but fresh water must have come from her
perspiration. From her smile emanated light, and from her grief all the sorrows of this world. The
Pleroma, Moved to pity at her state, sent Savior to separate her into two elements: matter which
is wholly evil, and animal, which is mixed. Acamoth was so delighted that new generations
produced angels and men. Her son Demiurge fashioned "right-handed" and "left-handed" men.
Men have matter and an animal soul from Demiurge, but also a spiritual principle from the angels.
By reason of these composite elements, men may be classified into spiritual, the Gnostics who
are saved whatever they may do; material, Gnostic foes and pagans who are entirely evil and
inevitably damned; and animal men, ordinary Catholics, who have a chance of salvation by
conversion to Gnosticism.
Soteriology is concerned with returning Acamoth and her brood to the Pleroma.
Demiurge eventually produces the man Christ into whom the eon Savior descended at the
baptism in the Jordan. The eon Savior left the man Christ in Gethsemane, changing with Simon
Cyrene, who died on the cross while the eon Savior stood to one side mocking the Jews.
Demiurge remained ignorant of all this inside information about Christ until he appeared in the
guise of the centurion and was instructed. Then the eon Savior returned to the Pleroma.
Morality. Gnostic spiritual men, who are above morality, are urged to imitate the sexual
relations of the Pleroma. They make converts, preferably women, and impart some of the
Gnostic lore at the price of their money and virtue. Animal men, however, must strive by good
works, continence, mortification, to get rid of their material element in order to become spiritual
like the Gnostics. According to St. Irenaeus, Gnostic teachers thus constituted an inner circle for
whom all the practices of Christian asceticism are a preparation. All of the Old and New
Testament were adapted in weird fashion to confirm this teaching; e.g., the daughter of Jairus is a
type of Acamoth; Christ's Passion is a type of that of Wisdom, etc.
Eschatology. Finally at the end of the world Acamoth will be taken into the Pleroma as
the bride of Savior, thus making an even number of thirty-four eons. Demiurge will be promoted
to the intermediate state outside the Pleroma vacated by Acamoth, and all animal men will go
with him, for Silence will put invisibility caps on all who weed out matter before judgment day.
Spiritual men, divested of their bodies, will be assumed into the Pleroma. Fire will descend on
the material men, destroy them, and then annihilate itself-a tidy conclusion to the Gnostic
panorama.
C. Decline of Gnosticism
(1) GNOSTIC SCHISMS
The Western School, which continued Valentinianism in Italy and Gaul, was led by
Ptolemy and Heracleon, known to St. Irenaeus. They carried on the perverse interpretation of
Scripture with fantastic allegories, and it is believed that Origen's meticulous care in setting forth
the literal text of all biblical versions in his Hexaplar was intended to offset this abuse.
The Eastern School of Valentinianism was carried on by Axionikos and Bardesanes (d.
222) in Egypt and Syria. They intermingled some elements of Persian magic and reduced the
cult to pure charlatanry.
(2) GNOSTIC REFUTATION
St. Irenaeus (d. 202) was Gnosticism's greatest foe. Though he began his refutation
with a flippant parody-"in the beginning was Proarche and Melon-Rind and Utter Emptiness, and
the latter produced Cucumber to which was given as consort Melon, whence came all the little
melons"-yet be did not neglect careful refutation. In his Against Heresies he challenged the very
basis of this arbitrary gnosis by tracing the whole course and content of the Catholic tradition. If
the Gnostics claim to have "superior inside information," let them prove it by traditions going back
to the apostles; let them name the succession of their bishops going to ordination by one of the
apostles; let them show that their teachings are in accord with the Roman Church, "that very
great and very ancient church, with whom all the faithful must agree because of its more eminent
principality" (III, 3). By the time of St. Irenaeus's death, Gnosticism had been driven into retreat;
at least it had been so exposed that no Christian would be deceived by its parody of Christianity.
St. Hippolytus (d. 235) carried the fight against Gnosticism into the next century with his
Refutation of All Heresies. Though he sometimes disagrees with St. Irenaeus on details, this is
explicable by the rapid fluidity of Gnostic variations under each new teacher. As late as the fifth
century St. Epiphanius still attacked Gnosticism in his Medicine Chest, but by that time it had
abandoned all pretensions at being Christian.
(3) PERENNIAL GNOSTICISM
A Gnostic attitude seems perennial in certain members of fallen humanity; for instance it
reappears in this twentieth-century Rosicrucian advertisement: "What were these
communications which for generations could only be transmitted from mouth to ear? It was the
rare wisdom of the ancients; age-old truths which tyrants and selfish rulers sought to suppress;
knowledge which they knew would give man power, independence, mastery of life, and the ability
to attain his highest ideals. Today, these secret principles once withheld from the masses are
available to the sincere, to you, if you seek the fullness of life. Send for free book. . . ."
Conclusion: Nevertheless in combating Gnosticism, the first wide-spread threat to
Christian orthodoxy, St. Irenaeus had outlined the response that the Catholic Church would make
to all future heresies: not so is it contained in the "deposit of faith" which we have from historical
popes and bishops, who received it from Peter and the apostles, who were sent by Christ, who is
the Eternal Son of God, who can neither deceive nor be deceived.